Consequences of the practice of early marriage syndrome in our society

Introduction

Early marriage which can also be referred to as child marriage is defined as any marriage carried out in which any or both partners are below the age of 18 years, before the child is physically, physiologically and psychologically matured to face such huge task of marriage and childbearing, (Adedokun, Tochukwu & Adedeji, 2012). This phenomenon called early marriage thrives mostly in the atmosphere of poverty, gender inequality, cultural taboos against premarital sex, religious beliefs and patriarchal predisposition for controlling sexuality.  This practice varies from one society to another since each society differs in some basic norms and beliefs that guide the people (Gimba, 2014).

In a country like Nigeria particularly in the Northern part of Nigeria early marriage of the girl-child is encouraged (Abdallah, 2011). Akpan (2013) opined that the basis for acceptance of early marriages among northern area of Nigeria in particular is to preserve the value of virginity, fears about marital sexual activity, to reduce promiscuity of the girl-child, and other socio-cultural and religious norms. However, because of little exposure of most parents and their short sightedness they forget the impact it has on the girl- child as well as their community development. It is however unfortunate, disturbing and worrisome that the girl- child has no power to resist the pressure (Berezi, 2012).

According to Abdallah (2011), the implications of early marriage which impacts in the general well-being of the partners and that of the society include lack of education, lack of economic empowerment and lack of knowledge on reproductive health services which will enable them take informed decisions, enhance their ability to leverage resources and participate in community decision making. Molokwu (2007) argued that the reasons usually adduced to perpetuate and defend the evil menace of child marriage are poverty, unwanted pregnancy, parental pressure, peer pressure and developmental stage among others. It has a negative impact which includes emotional and mental distress, intolerance, school drop-out, vesico vaginal fistula (VVF) disease for the girl child, early widowhood, frustration and hatred for the man (Bala, 2007).

Conceptual framework

According to Nour (2009), early marriage is a formal marriage or informal union entered into by an individual before reaching the age of 18. The legally prescribed marriageable age in some jurisdictions is below 18 years, especially in the case of girls; and even when the age is set at 18 years, many jurisdictions permit earlier marriage with parental consent or in special circumstances, such as teenage pregnancy. In certain countries, even when the legal marriage age is 18, cultural traditions take priority over legislative law.

Early marriage especially of the girl child is a traditional practice that in many places happens simply because it has happened for generations – and straying from tradition could mean exclusion from the community (Peters, 2006).Early marriage is related to child betrothal, and it includes civil cohabitation and court approved early marriages after teenage pregnancy. In many cases, only one marriage-partner is a child, usually the female (Houseknecht & Lewis, 2010).

Bearak (2006) stated that early marriage is a human rights violation and despite laws against it, the practice remains widespread, in part because of persistent poverty and gender inequality. In developing countries, one in every three girls is married before reaching age 18. One in nine is married under age 15.  Early marriage threatens girls’ lives and health, and it limits their future prospects. Girls pressed into child marriage often become pregnant while still adolescents, increasing the risk of complications in pregnancy or childbirth. These complications are a leading cause of death among older adolescents in developing countries (Ralston, 2011).

Zhao (2007) traced the practice of early marriages to poverty, bride price, dowry, cultural traditions, laws that allow child marriages, religious and social pressures, regional customs, fear of remaining unmarried, illiteracy, and perceived inability of women to work for money.

Prevalence of early marriage

Worldwide, more than 700 million women alive today were married before their 18^th birthday. More than one in three (about 250 million) entered into union before age 15. Boys are also married as children, but girls are disproportionately affected (Bartha, 2009).

In Niger, for instance, 77 per cent of women aged 20 to 49 were married before age 18 in contrast to 5 per cent of men in the same age group. Even in countries where child marriage is less common, the same gender differences are found. In the Republic of Moldova, for example, 15 per cent of women aged 20 to 49 were married before age 18 compared to 2 per cent of men. Furthermore, girls are often married to considerably older men (Gaffney-Rhys, 2011).

Berezi (2012) stated that in Mauritania and Nigeria, more than half of adolescent girls aged 15 to 19 who are currently married have husbands who are 10 or more years older than they are. Early marriage is a manifestation of gender inequality, reflecting social norms that perpetuate discrimination against girls. Early marriage among girls is most common in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and the 10 countries with the highest rates are found in these two regions. Niger has the highest overall prevalence of child marriage in the world. However, Bangladesh has the highest rate of marriage involving girls under age 15. South Asia is home to almost half (42 per cent) of all child brides worldwide; India alone accounts for one third of the global total (Lane, 2012).

Contributory factors to the practices of early marriage

Nwokolo (2012) stated that the menace of early marriage continues to thrive because of many reasons, some of which include:

• Extreme poverty
• Absence or limited education and economic options
• Teenage pregnancy
• War/conflict situations
• Religion and tradition

1. Extreme poverty

It is a known fact that many poor families, marry off their daughters at an early age as a strategy for economic survival; it means one less person to feed, clothe and educate. In Asia and Africa, the importance of financial transactions at the time of marriage also tends to push families to marry their daughters early. For example, in many sub-Saharan cultures parents get a high bride price for a daughter who is married near puberty (Nwokolo, 2012).

In Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Nepal, parents feel that their burden of paying a dowry at their daughter’s marriage will be lower if she is married at a young age. The incidence of forced child marriage is much more common in poorer countries and regions, and within those countries, it tends to be concentrated among the poorest households. For example, a girl from a poor household in Senegal is four times more likely to marry as a child than a girl from a rich household. In impoverished situations, many parents see few alternatives for their daughters, aside from early marriage (Mathur & Maihotra, 2013).

2.Absence or limited education and economic options

The absence or little schooling strongly correlates with being married off at a young age. Conversely, attending school and having higher levels of education protect girls from the possibility of early marriage. In many countries, educating girls often is less of a priority than educating boys. When a woman’s most important role is considered to be that of a wife, mother and homemaker, schooling girls and preparing them for the jobs may be given short shrift. And even when poor families want to send their daughters to school, they often lack access to nearby, quality schools and the ability to pay school fees. It is usually safer and economically more rewarding to spend limited resources on educating sons than daughters. This scenario presents families little or no choice at all than to marry off the girl child early (Walker, 2012).

3.Teenage pregnancy

Teenage pregnancy which in most of the time are unplanned also result to co-habitation which contributed to early marriage. Teenage pregnancies are often associated with social issues, including lower educational levels, higher rates of poverty, and other poorer life outcomes in children of teenage mothers. Teenage pregnancy is usually outside of marriage, and carries a social stigma in many communities and cultures so many parents often are forced to give in and marry off their girls for their pregnancies to be welcomed by family and society (Bala, 2013)

4.War/conflict situations

It is becoming practically impossible for families who live in war zones and conflict zone to hold back their children from early marriages. In fact some parents may genuinely believe that marrying their daughters is the best way to protect them from danger. In war-affected areas in Afghanistan, Burundi, Northern Uganda or Somalia for example, a girl may be married to a warlord or another authority figure that can ensure that she and her family is secured (Molokwu, 2007).

5.Religion and tradition

In several culture and societies, parents are under pressure to marry off their daughters as early as possible in an effort to prevent her from becoming sexually active before marriage; a woman who does so brings dishonour to her family and community. Because marriage often determines a woman’s status in many societies, parents also worry that if they do not marry their daughters according to social expectations, they will not be able to marry them at all (Barnes, Fores & Temius, 2008).

Forced child marriage also is a route to cementing family, clan, and tribal connections or settling obligations. For example, in Pakistan’s Northwest Frontier Province, Afghanistan and in some parts of the Middle East, marrying young girls is a common practice to help the grooms’ families offset debts or to settle inter-family disputes. At its core, forced child marriage is rooted in tradition. International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW)(2007) study found that no one religious affiliation was associated with the practice. Rather different religions were associated with a high prevalence of forced child marriage, in a number of countries all over the world.

The challenges of the practice of early marriage  

There has been a resurgence of interest among policy makers the world over on the phenomenon of the child marriage. The reason for this is essentially because early marriage has continued to be highly prevalent despite the multitude efforts by international organizations and many governments to discourage and even outlaw the practice (UNICEF, 2014). As said earlier it is a violation of the rights of the girl child who are forced to marry early (in many cases against their wish) and it profoundly affects their life through substantially lower education prospects, health complications, a higher likelihood of acquiring HIV/AIDS, and higher levels of infant mortality with early pregnancies, and higher risks of violence in the home as well as strains on the economy of the nation.

On the basis of physiological and social criteria and data from demographic and health surveys, Mathur and Maithotra (2013) suggests that boys and girls aged 14 and younger are almost universally too young for sexual, marital, and reproductive transitions, while 15-17-year – olds often are too young, depending on circumstances.

The consequences of the practice of early marriage

Early marriage has lasting consequences on girls, which last well beyond adolescence. Some of these challenges as stated by Raj (2010) include:

• Health challenges
• Illiteracy and poverty
• Domestic violence

1. Health challenges

Early marriage threatens the health and life of girls. Complications from pregnancy and childbirth are the main cause of death among adolescent girls below age 19 in developing countries. Pregnant girls aged 15 to 19 are twice as likely to die in childbirth as women in their 20s, and girls under the age of 15 are five to seven times more likely to die during childbirth (Raj, 2010).

These consequences are due largely to girls’ physical immaturity where the pelvis and birth canal are not fully developed. Teen pregnancy, particularly below age 15, increases risk of developing obstetric fistula, since their smaller pelvises make them prone to obstructed labour (Nour, 2009). Girls who give birth before the age of 15 have an 88% risk of developing fistula. Fistula leaves its victims with urine or faecal incontinence that causes lifelong complications with infection and pain. Unless surgically repaired, obstetric fistulas can cause years of permanent disability, shame to mothers, and can result in being shunned by the community (ICRW, 2007).

Child marriage not only threatens the mother’s health, it also threatens the lives of offspring. Mothers under the age of 18 years have 35 to 55% increased risk of delivering pre-term or having a low birth weight baby than a mother who is 19 years old. In addition, infant mortality rates are 60% higher when the mother is under 18 years old. Infants born to child mothers tend to have weaker immune systems and face a heightened risk of malnutrition. Prevalence of child marriage may also be associated with higher rates of population growth, more cases of children left orphaned, and the accelerated spread of disease (Field & Ambrus, 2008).

2.Illiteracy and poverty

Early marriage often ends a girl’s education, particularly in impoverished countries where early marriages are common. In addition, uneducated girls are more at risk for child marriage. Girls that have only a primary education are twice as likely to marry before age 18 than those with a secondary or higher education, and girls with no education are three times more likely to marry before age 18 than those with a secondary education (Chowdhury, 2014). Early marriage impedes a young girl’s ability to continue with her education as most drop out of school following marriage to focus their attention on domestic duties and having or raising children. Girls may be taken out of school years before they are married due to family or community beliefs that allocating resources for girls’ education is unnecessary given that her primary roles will be that of wife and mother (Molokwu, 2010).

Without education, girls and adult women have fewer opportunities to earn an income and financially provide for themselves and their children. This makes girls more vulnerable to persistent poverty if their spouses die, abandon, or divorce them. Given that girls in child marriages are often significantly younger than their husbands, they become widowed earlier in life and may face associated economic and social challenges for a greater portion of their life than women who marry later (Nwokolo, 2012).

3.Domestic violence

Married teenage girls with low levels of education suffer greater risk of social isolation and domestic violence than more educated women who marry as adults (Bearak, 2006). Following marriage, girls frequently relocate to their husband’s home and take on the domestic role of being a wife, which often involves relocating to another village or area. This transition may result in a young girl dropping out of school, moving away from her family and friends, and a loss of the social support that she once had (Lane, 2012),

A husband’s family may also have higher expectations for the girl’s submissiveness to her husband and his family because of her youth. This sense of isolation from a support system can have severe mental health implications including depression. Large age gaps between the child and her spouse make her more vulnerable to domestic violence and non-consensual sexual intercourse. Girls who marry as children face severe and life-threatening marital violence at higher rates. Husbands in early marriages are often more than ten years older than their wives. This can increase the power and control a husband has over his wife and contribute to prevalence of spousal violence (Nour, 2009).

Various policy interventions to curb early marriage in Africa

Stakeholders at various meetings both local and at international levels have sought to reduce the incidence of early marriage using both prevention and service support interventions. Legal and policy interventions to outlaw early marriages and protect the girl child have emerged as the major prevention program. Other prevention interventions include girl child education programs, and mass media sensitization projects to educate parents about the dangers of child marriages as well as economic empowerment programs to improve the economic status of girls within the family. Support interventions target the already married adolescent to provide legal, psychosocial, livelihood skills and microcredit services to vulnerable child wives.

The UNICEF has over time championed the Girl Child rights, enforcement and legal protection in conjunction with several other bodies like the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in the UNDP from as early as 2001 as a mechanism for catalysing political leadership and compliance with global standards and  conventions. DAW and the UNICEF have argued that in protecting the rights of the girl child international standards on elimination of discrimination and violence against girl children are an important starting point. Thus a comprehensive package of international legislation and conventions on child rights in general and the rights of the girl child in particular have been recommended throughout countries with high rates of early marriage as an effective means of reducing the scourge (UNICEF, 2014).

Several governments on the continent have adopted global standards and legislation to prevent early marriages. Governments have also established legal minimum ages at marriage for both women and men and have sought to protect the rights of the child through legislative instruments. Global and regional legal instruments with implications for early marriage in Africa according to Adedokun et al.(2012) include:

• The Convention on the Rights of the Child
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
• The Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1964) Articles 1, 2 and 3
• The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination of Women (1979) Articles 2 and 16
• The United Nations Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institution and Practices Similar to Slavery (1956), Article 1(c)
• Plan of Action for the Elimination of Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children
• The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights
• The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1990) Article XXI
• The Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1964)
• The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976) Article 12
• The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (1989)
• Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (known as the Maputo Protocol) (2003) Article 6, clauses (a), (b), (d)

Measures to control the practices of early marriage

In order to eradicate the menace of early marriage and its implications on the society, Abdallah (2011) suggests that the following measures should be holistically implemented:

1. There is need to confront the traditions that surround and support early marriage, by mounting a massive campaign and education of the youths, parents and community members about the negative effects of early marriage.
2. Government should ensure this is included in School curricula for the knowledge of students in school, and it will be helpful to raise a supportive network of leaders and teachers who can help girls negotiate with their parents.
3. It is imperative for government to actively involve traditional and religious leaders in the discussions with parents to eradicate early marriage.
4. Expand the training for health and community workers on the dangers of early marriage and engaging them as advocates and resources can help to curb the menace of early child marriage.
5. Strengthen the role of police through training on enforcement of the early marriage law and also encourage community members who advocate for young girls to draw on police participation and broadcast information on the legal protections guaranteed to girl child.
6. Develop strong support systems to keep girls in school and
7. Lastly, it is also key to involve vocal, successful and professional women in communities to talk to girls and serve as role models and a source of inspiration, so that they can aspire to a new and different future rather than choosing to be baby mothers.

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