Health problems associated with inadequate supply of safe drinking water

Introduction

Water is describe as a colorless, transparent, odorless and tasteless liquid that fall as rain, it forms the seas, lake and rivers, etc (Hornby, 2009). Water is made up of two element of hydrogen and one element of oxygen and is chemical represented as H₂O.

According to Olorunda, David, Samuel, Mercy and Adama (2007), unwholesome water is that water that is unsafe, harmful, contains impurities which when consumed, it affect the health of man. While wholesome water is that water that is free from harmful substances of any sort including pathogenic organism, poisonous chemical, which is pleasing to the eyes and palatable to taste.

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme, 5 to 10 million deaths occur each year from water related diseases; the illnesses include cholera, malaria, dengue fever, etc. The United Nations also report that these illnesses have been increasing over the past decade and without large economic investments in safe drinking water supplies, the rate of increase will continue.

Snow (2001), state that drinking water and sanitation are health programmes. They are essential for the promotion of health, where health is under trait for communicable disease. A good drinking water is suitable for health; this simple fact was recognized more than a hundred years ago during the outbreak of cholera epidemic in London. Therefore unwholesome water supply remains the major causes of communicable disease and may be permanently eradicated by the provision of wholesome water supply and sanitation.

Sources of Water Supply

The main sources of water are

• Surface water
• rain water
• underground water.

Surface water

Surface water is water on the surface of the planet such as in a stream, river, lake, wetland or ocean. It can be contrasted with ground water and atmospheric water. This source of water is easily polluted by direct contamination by man and animal or indirect when faeces that are dispose indiscriminately are been washed by rain into our water bodies.

According to Allen (2004), all surface sources of water are commonly expose to both physical and bacterial contamination unless it is subjected to reliable process of purification.

Surface water could be channel into three sections, the first section close to the source should be use for drinking purposes which should be provided with platform on top to prevent wading through, the second section for washing and other domestic purpose or use, the third section should be use for agricultural purposes. Farming and grazing of animals close to the river bank should be prevented (Olorunda et al., 2007).

Rain water

According to Ovu (2008), rain water is pure but it may pick up impurities from the atmosphere, roofs, guttering and storage tanks. As the only source of water, it is only suitable for countries with a reliable rain fall perennially. The first to three falls of rain should not be used for drinking purposes until roofs have been cleaned. At the next fall, rain water should be taken after the first 20 minutes of fall. In collecting rain water for use, the roof must be provided with eaves getter and down pipes connected to cover and protect storage tank. Tanks could be constructed of galvanized iron or of concrete.

Underground water

Unuraye and Olojoba (2005), opined that ground water occur as a result of rainfall which percolates into the ground to form underground deposits. When such water comes in contact with obstacle i.e. an impervious layer of the soil to the extent that it can no longer penetrate, it finds out a way of escape and oozes out as spring through a crack of fissure. Also ground water can be tapped and raised to the surface by various means such as well or bore-holes. These two sources come in form of deep or shallow well.

Method of collection and storage of water

To ensure safe or wholesome water supply to members of the public, there is urgent need for surveillance on the part of those responsible for water distribution. The state ministry of health and the local government authority in this respect, each of the components of water supply system must function without failure. Water taken from potentially contaminated source like river, dams and stream should be purified before it is consumed.

WAHEB (1991), stated that drinking water should not contain pathogenic micro-organism and should be free from bacteria, dust, leaves and bird dropping which are indicators of pollution. It is therefore vital that drinking water samples from source and storage tank or vessels should be tested regularly for indicators of faecal pollution.

Olorunda et al ( 2007), stated that the storage of water be it rain, stream/river, well or borehole, it must ensure that the water is prevented from contamination either from human, animal, dust, leaves and other pollutant that might enter into the container.

In the rural area, collection and storage of rainwater is done in a clay pots. The advantage is to ensure the coolness of the water at all times. A tight fitting cover should be provided to create dark conditions in the storage container so as to prevent the growth of algae and the breeding of mosquitoes.

Imohimi (2001), stated that inadequate treatment, storage and distribution of water done only cause epidemic which might also have a direct effect on the user but affect the health status of the resident lives. The disease carrying organism found in water can be effectively killed by disinfecting the water with chlorine, dosage must be sufficient to aid complete purification container that should be use for the collection and storage of water must be clean and it must have a tight fitting cover that will help to create dark conditions in the storage container so as to prevent the growth of algae and the breeding of mosquitoes.

Health hazard associated with unwholesome water supply

According to Olojoba (2009), Water related diseases are diseases transmitted through the use or consumption of already contaminated water. Water related diseases may be divided into four main groups namely.

1. Water –borne disease.
2. Water washed or water shortage disease.
3. Water based or water impounding.
4. Water related vector borne disease.

Water borne disease: these are groups of water related disease in which water act as passive vehicle for the infecting agent or its transmission. Examples are cholera, typhoid fever, leptospirosis, etc.

Water washed or water shortage disease: these are group of water related disease that occurs due to lack of adequate quantity of water and poor personal hygiene which creates condition favourable for their spread. They may therefore be described as water washed diseases and they depend on the quantity of water used rather than its quality. Example of water wash diseases are scabies, trachoma, amoebic dysentery, diarrhoea etc.

Water based disease or water impounding: A water based disease is the type in which the disease causing organisms spend partial part of its life cycle in a water snail or other aquatic animal or vector. The parasite is discharged by an infected person to the water environment and must find and enter a specific intermediate host (usually a snail, crustacean or a fish). In this secondary host, it has to pass through one or more developmental stages before becoming infectious to man. e.g. schistosomiasis, paragonomiasis, and fascioliasis etc.

Water related vector borne disease: This fourth group of infection is that which is transmitted by an insects or other animal vector that breed in water, near water or make occasional visits to water. e.g. malaria, yellow fever, onchocerciasis and trypanosomiasis etc.

Method of water treatment

Newton (2013), stated that there are two different method of water treatment namely:

• Small scale or household water treatment.
• Conventional or large scale treatment.

Small scale water treatment

The process of small scale water treatment involves four stages which are:

• Boiling
• Coagulation and sedimentation.
• Filteration
• Disinfection

Boiling: This is a reliable way of eliminating pathogens from individual households, but it is impracticable on a large scale it can be used in special circumstances e.g. where there is a sudden breakdown in the treatment process of municipal water supply. It is also advisable to boil all water to be used for feeding young infants and pregnant women.

Coagulation and sedimentation: This is the addition of aluminium sulphate to water which leads to flocculation of finely suspended matter, the large particles settle more rapidly, leaving a clear appearance.

Filtration: this is the process whereby water is allowed to pass through porous material that help to remove bacterial, protozoa, cysts and other larger particles present in water, but will not remove viruses.

Disinfection: This is the application of chlorine that helps to destroy pathogenic substances that are present in water.

Conventional or large scale treatment of water

• Source: The source of water supply for conventional treatment should either be from a stream, dam, flowing river or sea depending on the population it is to serve.
• Screening: This is the process where suspended large sized particles are prevented from entering into the treatment plant from the source and to bar away aquatic living organism.
• Aeration: This is the process of allowing water to come into contact with air for the purpose of oxidation; aeration increases oxidation thereby absorbing oxygen (O₂) into water, and expels carbon iv oxide (Co₂). Aeration removes hydrogen sulphide which causes odour in water.
• Coagulation chamber: At this chamber, chemicals like aluminium sulphate (Al₂ SO₄) and magnesium carbonate (MgSO₄) are added or introduced into the already screened and aerated water to flocculate and enables the suspended and dissolved particles in water to settle down easily.
• Sedimentation chamber: After the coagulation of the water, it is passed into the sedimentation chamber where solid particles settle down at the bottom of the tank due to gravitational force.
• Filtration chamber: Water is allowed to flow from the sedimentation tank to the filtration chamber where debris in waters are filtered up to 85% or more. Filtration in large water treatment can be done in two ways either with the use of the slow gravity sand filter or rapid sand filter also known as pressure filters.
• Chlorination chamber: Water is passed into the chlorination chamber for the dosing or application of chlorine into the water in order to destroy all micro-organism present in water.
• Chlorine/P^H testing: The disinfected water from the chlorination chamber has to be tested to confirm the effectiveness of the treatment. During this process, the acidity and alkalinity content of the water is checked and balance with the use of colour comparator. The ph of water ranges from 6.8 to 7.2.
• Storage: After balancing the ph level of the water, the water is pumped into temporary reservoirs and booster station to serve the community and individual premises in a sequential order.
• Distribution: Water is distributed directly to the industries, institution, states, public tap and to individual premises.

Prevention and control of unwholesome water supply

WHO (2005), stated that water cannot be managed, it must be provided and protected. Therefore, unwholesome water supply can be controlled and prevented through the provision of adequate water supply in various communities by the federal government.

In order to prevent and control the supply of unwholesome water to the members of the public, the following measures must be adopted.

1. Olorunda et al (2007), stated that drinking water should not contain pathogenic organisms and should be free from bacteria which are indicators of pollution. It is therefore important that drinking water sample from sources and storage vessels should be tested regularly for indicators of faecal pollution. Water taken from potentially contaminated source like rivers, streams, and dams should be purified before it is consumed. Low strength chlorine like JIK manufacture for bleaching can be use to purify water.
2. Health education: The importance of health education in the prevention and control of unwholesome water supply should not be over looked in order to provide wholesome water to the public, there is need for surveillance on the part of those responsible for water distribution. And also the attitude of defecating, washing, bathing and grazing of animals close to the river should be discourage in order to prevent the spread of water related disease. There should be proper diagnosis of infected persons and such persons should be restricted from going close to surface water supply in order to prevent contamination. Proper treatment should be given to those infected. Surface water should be channel into four sections depending on its uses and importance.
3. Regular street sweeping also reduces contaminants. In urban areas, reduces materials carried away by storm run-off is also helpful.
4. Industries should treat their waste water before discharging them into the environment. It is very important, that our different water source should be protected.
5. WAHEB (1991), advocated the boiling of contaminated water so as to render it fit for human consumption.
6. The state ministry of health and the local government authority in this respect must ensure that each of the components of water supply system must function without failure.
7. Proper maintenance of pumps and wells: pipes and taps should always be kept clean.
8. Water management committee should be established in each community to manage water facilities in their own community.
9. Olowoparija (2007), mentioned that in order to eliminate pathogens of individual household, water should be boiled especially when there is an out-break of water borne disease. Under this point water should be allowed to boil for 100 ⁰c thereafter allow to cool down. After a period of time the water is filtered through approved sanitary filter to trap sediments. After filtering, the filter water should be stored in a clean container.

 References

Allen. S. (2004) “Water Used by Vegetation in Sahel” Oda Publishing Company Edo State.

Avwoke. P. (2012) Lecture Note on Water Sanitation School of Health Technology, Ofuoma-Ughelli. (Unpublished).

Albert A.O. (2007), Our Children Suffer and Die: Inaugural Lecture Series No. 44. University of Port-Harcourt Press Limited.

Diabana (2010) “Ways to Healthy Living” (2^nd Ed) Markudi Destiny Printing and Publishing Company

Hornby, A.S.(2005). Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English (7^thEd). Oxford University Press

Imohimi (2001) “Achieving Success in Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project” Benin City: Published By State University Press

Martins. H. (2013) Lecture Note on Water Quality Management. School Of Health Technology, Ofuoma-Ughelli (Unpublished).

Olojoba A.O. (2009) Millennium Technology in Waste Management and Environmental Pollution Ughelli :Ama Ohoror Printing Press.

Olorunda (2006), “A Technical Handbook of Environmental Health in 21^th Century For Professional and Students” Akure: His Mercy. Publisher

Olorunda, Olowoparija, David, Samuel, Mercie and Adam (2007): Monitoring and Modeling Techniques of Environmental Pollution (1^st Ed). His Mercy Publishers Nigeria.

Ovu, S.I. (2008), Introduction to Environmental Health (2^nd Edition). Ebonyi State Nigeria: God Giveth Printing and Publishing Company.

Unuraye L.O. and Olojoba A.O (2005) “Fundamental of Industrial and Environmental Health Management”. Ughelli: Ama Ohoror Printing Press.

Snow S. (2001), Water Treatment Technologies Using Natural Materials Calabar: Hofkes Printing Press.

WAHEB (1999) Water and Building Sanitation. Ibadan: Sterling and Oleverian.

World Health Organization (2005) Expert Committee.