Health implication of unwholesome water supply

Introduction

Water is a clean and transparent liquid compound, made up of two atoms hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Unuraye and Olojoba (2005), stated that water is the most abundant liquid on earth. They further explained that water covers three quarters of the earth surface and it is very necessary for existence and growth of all forms of life and vegetations.

Unwholesome water is that water that is unsafe, harmful and contains impurities which when consumed, predisposes man to unhealthy condition. The gravity of drinking water is a vital element of public health and well-being of any community large or small. That is why a convenient supply of wholesome water is essential for a healthful life.

World Health Organisation (WHO, 2003) has revealed that 80% of sickness and death among children in the world is caused by unsafe water and poor sanitation. Poor quality of water is causing increase damage to people lives mostly in developing countries which will not occur if people are provided with safe water and basic sanitation facilities.

Therefore wholesome water should be made available to meet its required purpose. Water source should be wholesome and consequently free from any contamination. A substance of any sorts, including pathogenic organisms and is further pleasing to the eye and palatable to taste. Water that is meant for human consumption should be wholesome and should not contain any micro-organism. Wholesome water is that water which contains foreign substance among others which tend to degrade its quality so as to constitute health problems or impair the usefulness of the water. On the other hand, it implies pollution with human waste (faeces and urine) which may result into water-borne diseases.

Park (2005) stated that the most cause of ill-health condition which affects man especially in developing countries can be traced to lack of safe and unwholesome water supply. The greatest risks to human health is caused by contaminated water with pathogenic organisms such as Cryptosporidium, Campylobacter, Guardia and Escherichia coli that result to water borne diseases. Examples of these diseases are dysentery, cholera, typhoid fever, diarrhea etc, therefore individuals who consumes such water is of the risks of acquiring this diseases.

United Nation (UN, 2003) revealed that more than five hundred and eighty million people in thirty one countries lack safe water while  the global picture of the dangerous phenomenon revealed that one million people  do not have access to safe water.

World Health Organization (WHO 1981-1990) launched the international drinking water supply and sanitation with the aim of providing people with adequate supplies of safe and wholesome water. Safe water and sanitation are essential pre-condition for promotion of health where health is under threat for communicable disease.

Olojoba (2009) stated that water constitute more than 50% of human body and its existence form part of human dynamic cycle due to solar radiation from vast surface of the ocean and lake.

A government supply of wholesome water is essential prerequisite for a healthy life. Water is not just vital environmental factor to all forms of life, but also a great role to play in social economic development of human population. WHO and other United Nations Organization committed to goals and decay and trying to mobilized the necessary resources among most valuable resource is the will and determination of group of people to acquire and use properly as a safe water for education, it implies a better chance of a style of life and open the way for socio-economic growth. The provision of a good quality water is adequate amount when it is needed also helps to minimize the chain of disease transmission.

Therefore unwholesome water supply will continue to cause serious problems of unwholesome water supply and sanitation facilities are not provided in order for such problem to be permanently eradicated.

Sources of water

Major sources of water are;

1. Precipitation (rain)
2. Surface water
3. Underground water

Precipitation

This refers primarily to rain, snow and dew etc that falls and in many communities where potable water supply is limited, it has become a relatively good source of consumable water.

According to Owhadia (2002) is the condensed and vaporized moisture of the atmosphere falling in separate drops. Rain can be categorized into the following forms, hail, snow, mist and dew etc.

Rain however, remains the purest of waters made available by mother nature particularly when collected under hygienic condition an devoid of atmospheric pollutants like smoke, fumes, smog and other— hazardous substances.

1. Where rain water is commonly used

In many tropical countries rain water remains the main source of water supply due to constant and heavy rain fall which the tropical region is noted for said Allen (2004). Also in arid and semi-arid areas, people depend on rain water supply such as stream, river, and wells are not easy to come by.

According to Owhadia (2002) rain water can be collected or harvested in two main ways namely: roof collection and ground collection. The roof collection is the most common method of collecting rain water.

On health ground, rain water should be harvested from roofs made of aluminium sheet. It should be noted that on no account should rain water be collected from thatched roof, asbestos, corrugated/rusty roof. The reason for this is not farfetched. According to Farquason (2005) collection from this roof s thatched and lead are fraught r involved with danger due largely to health hazards associated with such roofs, collection of rain water from asbestos roofs should be undertaken with  great precautions. Investigations revealed that asbestos fibres have been cache from the roof materials leading to high concentration of asbestos in the collected rain water.

The painting of roof sheets must be discouraged to prevent colouration and taste which the painting might introduce into the collected rain water says (WHO, 2001). Proper grading of the roof is the best way of discouraging sagging of the roof which automatically collected and retain water, and subsequently breed mosquitoes. For good yield, the house must be provided with drums or tanks as storage facilities. The roof top usually accumulates dust, leaves, and bird droppings during the dry season. It is therefore necessary and hygienic to allow the first new rains to run to waste for at least 10 minute if we intend to collect some degree of pure water. This way the accumulated particles will be washed off by the rains. Rain water when collected under hygiene remains the purest of all the source of water. Ground collection of rain water can be collected in the hole specially dug in the ground. This is done by digging a big hole or excavating the ground and by rendering the surrounding ground impervious by laying of tiles, concrete of good qualify yield from this method depends flatten or sloppy and water lightness of the top layers.

      2. Storage of rain water

According to World Health Organization (2004), Storage of rain water is of two types or methods; above the ground method and below the ground method. Whatever method chosen or adopted, must ensure the prevention or contamination of the water from human or animal, dust, and other pollutions that might enter the storage container. In the rural and semi urban areas, collection and storage of rain water using drums and clay pots. The advantage of using clay pots for is that coolness of the water is ensured at all time. A tight fitting mu be provided for the covering of the storage container to prevent the growth of algae and breeding of mosquitoes. Whitten (1992) states that special attention must be focused on this method of storage to prevent dust, leaves, sands, insects, lizard and other vermin from entering it, For this reason the inlet and outlet opening any other air vents should be fixed with wire mesh.

Surface water supply

According to Olojoba (2009) surface water Occurs in streams, river lakes oceans and ponds and is readily available in many populated areas, but it is almost always polluted, often grossly so. Usually, it is only used where there are no alternative sources of safe water. Sea water is also part of source water available in seas and oceans. Although it contain large amount of water, it is salty, generally referred to as salt water. While some part of it is refer as freshwater. Source water is the most impure of water supply. Allen (2004), that all surface sources of water are commonly exposed to both physical and bacterial contamination which is often heavy so that they seldom if ever be considered as safe potable water unless subjected to process of purification. According to Olojoba (2009), surface water is always polluted and it is the most impure source of water supply. Olojoba on the other hand stated that surface water could be channelled into four sections, the first section closer to the source for drinking purposes which should be provided with platform on top to prevent wading through. The second section for washing and other domestic use, the third section for washing of cloths and lastly the fourth section should be reserved for agricultural and animals use. According to Ojugbeli (2008), Rivers are found very close to human and this makes them to be very exposed to waste of varying degree. For the purpose of water supply to a community, the site should be properly located so as to draw water from a situation where objectionable conditions are relatively at the minimum. Betterment of the river and conservation of quality of its water, by proper treatment and necessary restraint of discharge of sewage and industrial, waste are of tie, for protecting the quality of river water.

1. Protection of surface water

According to Olojoba (2009), source of water should be protected from pollution by human faeces (a major source of pathogenic organism) other human contact which could lead to contamination e.g. with guinea worm and animals should be excluded from surface sources of water.

Ojugbeli (2008), protection of our rivers and streams could be done by: clearing of an area of about 10-20ft of weeds on either sides of the stream of river and away from the bank. Then divide the steam or river into sections. The first section, which is near to the source, should be reserved for drinking, the next section will be for washing and bathing, the next should be reserved for washing of cloths and lastly it should be for agricultural and animal use which is far from other sources.

The sources for drinking should be cleared of weeds. Nobody should or bath in the section. Occasionally clearing and removal of rotten leaves and debris generated at the bank will improve the condition. It is also useful to give health education to the community that uses the river to stress the value of protecting the rivers also emphasis the damage of polluting the river by any of the ways listed above. Water galleries; quality of water derived from the river or stream may be improved i or made safe by sinking or digging holes usually known as galleries at a distance of 6-10 ft from the bank. The water level should be properly protected from surface pollution.

Underground water supply

This is water that is located within the rocks that is below the earth surface.  Most underground water originated from rainfall that has entered the earth in the over-burden acquirer, water fills the void space between grains of soil and come out on the surface of the earth as spring. It is either deep or shallow depending on the layer ground water, such as well and spring etc.

Olojoba (2009) states that underground water is taken as water contained in the water bearing stratum (aquifer). WHO (2003) agreed that underground water owners have a valuable role in ensuring the integrity of their water supply. Well owners are responsible for ensuring that their well is properly managed to prevent [supply of unwholesome water. They should ensure that all sanitary measures are put in place to protect their source of water supply. The users can protect ground water by changing their activities around the location of the underground supply.

Olorunda et al. (2007) explained that underground water from well or spring may be clear and cold, it is not necessarily safe even if the family have used this source of water for a long time. Sanitary precaution indicates that an underground water should be sited at least 100 ft from toilet and other source of pollution like refuse dump and the area should not he water logged and should not be close to foundation of a building.

Underground water results from water that percolate underground and such water is made available for man use either mechanically or manually. Underground water source is made up of well or spring.

• Wells: Wells serve as a source of water supply to man. It is derived from excavating the ground. It consists of a vertically dug or drilled into the underground to get surface or ground water. There are two main type of well. Deep and shallow well.
• Deep well: In these case the dug hole tap water beyond the first and second layer or strata. It never gets get dried up and because of the strata dept, pollution/contamination is not so high or severe.
• Shallow well: These are well dug to tap water from the first pervious strata or layer, dept not dried up during the dry season. They are also more prone to pollution/contamination.

Protection of underground water

Wells:  The protection of well as an underground source of water should take the following considerations;

• Well should be located on a good site. It should be located preferably uphill at a distance of 30 m or 100 ft from any potential source of underground pollution (latrine)
• The top of the well must be provided with parapet or copying of about 1 m high above the ground level.
• A water tight fitting cover must be provided on top of the parapet.
• A mechanical powered pump or a permanent bucket should be anchored to the well to discourage different source of contamination of pollution from getting inside the well.
• Washing of clothes, cars or laundry activities very close to the well must be strictly disallowed.
• The well should be disinfected every six months or as need arises.

Protection of wells

Having reached the depth of the well or desired depth, sides of the well should be linked impervious. The lining of the sides must be carried above the surrounding ground level to a height of at least 3 ft; this is known as parapet wall and should have a cover. The surroundings should be sloppy outwards to direct waste water into the drain. This process is known as apron. The well must have an inlet provided for taking water always. No washing of any sort should be carried out around the well, no other bucket should be introduced into the well except the one that is provided.

Method of water collection, treatment and storage

To ensure safe and wholesome water supply to members of the public, there is urgent need for surveillance on the part of those responsible for water distribution the state ministry of health and the local government authority in this respect, each of the components of water supply must function without failure. Water taken from potentially contaminated sources like river, dams, and pools should be purified before consumption, while, other means should be boiled for several mutes to ensure that the bacteria are killed.

WAHEB (1991) states that drinking water should not contain pathogenic micro-organism and should be free from bacteria which are indication of pollution. It is therefore vital that drinking water sample source and storage vessel should be tested regularly for indicators of faecal pollution. Most disease commonly in communal land is carried by water especially from unprotected wells and dams e.g. dysenteries, diarrhoea and typhoid can arise as a result of drinking water that is contaminated.

According to Olorunda et al. (2007), he said that storage of water be stream/river, well or borehole. The two most important method chosen or adopted, it must ensure prevention of contamination of the water from humans, animals, dust, leaves and other pollutions that might enter the container. In rural areas, collection and storage of rain or stream water is done in clay pots. The advantage is all time, and it must have a tight fitting cover to create dark conditions in the storage container so as to prevent the growth of algae and breeding of mosquitoes. Below the ground storage tank also ensure coolness of the water and prevent loss of water through, evaporation special focus must be put on this method to prevent dust, leaves and insects from entering in.

Imohimi (2001) states that inadequate treatment, storage and distribution of water not only cause epidemic which might have a direct effect on the user but affect the health of the resident also. World Health Organization (2000) observed that untreated non-saline ground water is normally much safer for human consumption than any untreated surface water; this is because the ground itself provides an effective purifying medium for such water constitute a major source of water.

Treatment of water

There are two major type for treating water; (1) domestic treatment which involves boiling, filtration, use of alum etc. and (2) the large scale for urban use which involve, storage, sedimentation and aeration, coagulation, filtration and chlorination or disinfection.

Water purification

Water purification is the method employed or measures and principles adopted in ensuring the quality and safety of water used for human consumption. Any water that is unwholesome needs purification. Note that unwholesome water is the water which contains pathogens, harmful chemical substance as well as objectionable physical characteristics like odour, colour, taste, turbid, etc. therefore any water portraying these characteristics needs to be purified.

Objectives of water purification

The following are objectives or aims of water purification;

• To destroy pathogenic organisms
• To prevent certain water borne diseases
• To make water wholesome and fit for human consumption by improving its quality.
• To remove water turbidity
• To remove fiat taste from water.
• To prevent unpleasant odour.

A sanitary well

A sanitary well is a well that is located in a good site and it must be free from sources of pollution or contamination and it must have the following characteristics;

• It should be tasteless.
• Should not be turbid.
• Should not represent nor present of faecal coil from bacteriological analysis.
• Should posses a pron as well as parapet.
• Should be technically made water-tight by linking.
• Should posses an anchor bucket for drawing water.
• Should posses a tight fitting cover.

Hazards associated with poor management (unwholesome) water supply

WAHEB (1999) notes that water related disease is one which in some way is related to water or impurities in water as a result of its distribution pattern. Water borne infection occurs when the pathogen is in the water, that is supply and drank by a person or animal which may them which may then become infection. Water borne diseases include hepatitis diarrhea and dysenteries etc. Allen (2004) water borne diseases are group into three categories namely water washed diseases e.g. scabies, trachoma etc water based disease e.g. schistosomiasis and guinea worm etc the greatest of these water quality problem (gastroenteritis) is related to faecal pollution inadequate hygiene these disease are preventable if there is a provision of safe or wholesome water which will reduce the cost on curative and medical care. The dramatic water borne epidemic of typhoid and cholera in some European town in the last century and in the first quarters of this one were caused by urban water supply with adequate treatment facilities.

Similar epidemics have occurred in African countries too, for the cholera epidemic which occurred in Sierra Leone 1987 was caused by pollution water. It was also reported that the countries in neighbouring Sierra Leone, namely Guinea and Liberia also experience a similar epidemic about cholera outbreak due to supply of polluted water.

The intake of unwholesome water could have a devastating effect our health as unsafe drinking water is a key determinant of many microbial (diseases with serious complications in immune-compromised individuals (Kwakye, 2007). According to Gbana (2007), water borne occurs as a result of consuming water containing pathogenic organisms.

Faecal-oral route of transmission of infection

Most of the diseases that are transmitted through inadequacy of portable water supply and defective sanitation usually follow the mode in the diagram below;

Diseases associated with unwholesome water

 Some measures of preventing and controlling water related diseases of unwholesome water supply

Olowoparija (2007) mentioned that in order to eliminate pathogens of individual household, water should be boiled especially when there is an break of faeco-oral or water borne, disease it is very advisable boil all water to be used for feeding young infant and susceptible adults.

Under this point of 100°C (212°F) and thereafter allowed to cool. After a considerable period of time it is filtered through approved sanitary filter to trap sediments. The filter water should be stored in a clean container or can. Though the taste of the water become faltered, it is safe for human consumption. Owhodia (2002) observed that water together with air are two matters that differentiate the earth from most of the other planet. According to Park (2005) observe that is no state of positive and being without safe water. For normal basic physiological requirement every human being requires a minimum of about 1.5 kilogram (15 litres) of water per day.

Water management committee should be established in each community to manage water facilities in their own community. Industries should treat their waste water prior to discharge into water body and the environment. It is vital for various water sources to be adequately protected. Such measures could be installation of treatment in urban centers and the use of improved pit latrines in the rural areas.

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