Introduction
Very often some disease and illness are believed to be caused by supernatural power or from the gods. It is also said that traditional and cultural practices that are harmful have continued to exist because of the super belief system of the people, instead of receiving the health knowledge inherent in them, this calls for urgent interference by health educators. Blaxter (2003) defines health as the absences of illness, functionally as the ability to cope with everyday activities.
WHO (1948) define health as a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Awake (2002) stated that superstitious traction hold illness and accident are not simply by chance but event instigated by forces in the spirit world. Often they claim that dead ancestors are unhappy, or someone has placed a curse or eaten a forbidden food and that is why sickness or accident takes place. Some traditional beliefs extend to keeping a healthy life, while some tend to exist without proof of scientifically unacceptable to health care and wellbeing.
It is also traditionally believed that when a baby is delivered without the placenta, the baby should be allowed to suck the mothers breast then the placenta will be out, which is also justified scientifically for the release of oxytoxin which enhance contraction, but some traditional practice are baseless dangerous embarrassing in some part of Nigeria it is believed that if a pregnant women eat snail or okro, the child that will be born will be running excessive saliva from the mouth. It is also believed that women and children with wounds should not eat groundnut, meat, beans because it will prevent the wound from healing. It is said that guava fruit should not be eaten as it causes appendicitis.
It is also believed that women should remove the first breast milk before breastfeeding their new born babies of which all these things been mention are nutritious and vital in the live of individual thus discussion so far that traditionally people have expressed has reinforce and contribution in health and illness in cultural expression. Incidentally, cultural beliefs come from feeling and more often difficult to modify, particularly when deeply rooted in these traditions or cultural taboos they are detrimental and inimical to health standards, thus the question now arise as to possibility of dealing with them but the implication of health educator is to bring about change in attitude and beliefs system, to promote good health, healthful habit and healthy living.
Okafor (2002) there are strong belief that violate some social custom, tradition or religious practices sufficient enough to offend the spirit or deity (god’s) this could cause illness and severely enough to cause death. Holist Nurse (2001) reviewed that traditional believes model of illness causation emphasis social and spiritual dysfunction as causes of illness and supernatural intervention, it is regarded as the main solution with management strategies such as preventive care, bush medicine and the role of traditional healer are needed and not western medicine intervention as culture and tradition have system of health beliefs to explains what causes illness and how it can be cured and treated and who should be involved in the process, the extent to which patient perceive education as having a profound effect on their reception to information provided and their willingness to use it.
Nwajei (2003) tradition belief is as old as religious organization. They believe in sacrifices to appeal the spirit with sacrificial animal as atonement to make healing possible just as traditional man does.
Conceptual framework
People harbour all kinds of belief which boarder on superstitious, this is not limited to a particular area, but every part of the world. It cut across religion, culture and tradition such belief has influenced, the life of literate and illiterate people in the society. Musa (2003) stated that superstitious belief prevent mothers and young children from obtaining adequate nutrition (nutrients) thus causing them to be malnourished.
Alkija (2002) opine that it may not be the shortage of food that causes them to be malnourished but they are malnourished because of traditional beliefs and practices, therefore traditional belief has a long term effect on its victim and may have potentials for adult malnutrition. Some tradition belief and practices about health standard and various forms of illness have reduce the level of health care practices and services because of lack of knowledge and awareness laid down generation to generation which has become an issue of concern to health educators to prevent individuals, mothers and child death.
The inventions of tradition belief
According to Edwards (1981) tradition is anything which is transmitted or handed over down from past to present. Tradition can also be referred to as beliefs or customs that are prehistoric, with lost or arcane origins, where passed orally without the need for writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhymes and alternation. The stories thus preserved are also referred to as tradition, or as part of an oral tradition, even such tradition however are presumed to have originated (been “Invented” by human) at some point tradition are often presumed to be ancient, unalterable, and deeply. Important though they may sometimes be much less “natural” than is presumed. It is presumed that at least two transmission over three generation are required for a practices, belief or object to be seen as traditional.
Some traditions where deliberately invented for one reason or another often to highlight or enhance importance of a certain institution. Tradition may also be adapted to suit the need of the day, and changes can become accepted as a part of the ancient tradition. Tradition changes slowly, with changes from generations to generations, to the next not being seen as significant, thus, those carrying tradition will not be consciously aware of the changes, and even if a tradition undergoes major changes over many generations, it will be seen as unchanged (Edward, 1981).
There are various origins and fields of tradition that can be refer to as:
- Artistic heritage of a particular culture.
- Beliefs or customs instituted and maintained by society and government, such as the national anthems and national holidays.
- Belief or custom maintained by religious denominations and churches bodies that share history, custom, culture and to some extent, body of teaching for example, one can speak of Islamic tradition or Christian tradition in terms of traditionalism.
Many objects or believed customs that can be traditional. Rituals of social interaction can be traditional, with phases and gesture such as saying “thank you” sending birth announcement, greetings cards etc. tradition can be refer to as larger concepts practices by groups ( family tradition at Christmas), organization, company, picnic or societies such as the practice of national and public holiday. Some of the oldest tradition includes monotheism (worship of one God). It can also include material object, such as building works of art or tools.
Tradition of the used objective in the context such as traditional music, traditional medicine, traditional values, culture, religion, norms and others, in such construction tradition refers to specific value and materials to the discussed context, pass through generations. Tradition should be different from custom, convention, laws, norms, routine, rules and similar concepts. Whereas tradition is supposed to be invariable, they are seen as more flexible and subject to innovate and changes whereas justification for tradition is ideological, the justification for other similar concept is more practical or technical. Over time customs, routines, conventions, rules into traditions but that usually requires that they stop having a practical purpose for example wig worm by lawyers were at first common and fashionable spurs worm by military officials were at first practical but now are both impractical and traditional.
According to Hobsbawn (2006) in Kanewky (1919) reviewed by Hobsbawn (2006) refer to situation when new practice, object are introduced in a manner that implies a connection with the past that is not necessarily present. A tradition may be deliberately created and promulgated for personal, commercial, political, or national self interest as was done in colonial Africa, or it may be adopted rapidly based on single highly publicized event, rather than developing and spreading organically in a population, as in case of the white wedding dress which only became popular after queen Victoria wore a white gown at her wedding to Albert of Saxe-Coburg. Invented tradition are a central component of modern national cultures providing a commonality of experience and promoting the unified national identity espoused by nationalism, as tradition and beliefs is highly literature and subject to study in several academic fields in social sciences Thomas (1997) who presented this thought.
There are several forms of traditional beliefs associated with taboos of consumption religiously. Buddhist has a belief to observe vegetarianism and avoid eating meat, some villages in Nigeria and American reject the consumption of cat and dog meat as it is regarded as a part of animal consumption, porcupine animal associated with infertility. In some part of Nigeria, it is belief that it is a taboo for a man to have sexual dealing with a menstruating woman as it is believed to nullifies the potency of charms and sorcery and its believed to cause bad luck too (Otite, 2006).
According to Ikweme (2006) Article on traditional beliefs: The following are beliefs that cause illness:
- That illness are caused by enemy who submitted their names to evil spirit
- That evil spirit could be appeased to cure mysterious illness.
- That some illness are reward of one’s evil doing in the past
- That husband should not stick to their wife sexually during menstruation to prevent (NSI) meaning mysterious illness is gotten from women, this is the common name for sexually transmitted disease.
- That health is a gift from God and should be maintained by good food, so the eating of fruit and vegetables is usually norms, as the vegetables are highly nourishable and mostly grown from family gardens and are not bought in the market and even if they are bought in the market are very affordable.
- The use of local herbs to cure illness which have been proven to be effective over the ages.
The consequences of traditional belief on the health of the people
Okonkwo (2004) stated that one of the reasons why some mothers are not presenting their children for immunization is that they feel that the child will be effected because of the immunization through wrong information and belief they hold on to. It is believed that when children are allowed to eat egg in their meal it will cause them to steal, so eggs are avoided in their meal or diet depriving them of the vital nutrients necessary for growth in the early development stage of their life Musa (2002).
Momu (2003) in Briega (2003) stated that in some parts of Nigeria, some people associated diarrhea in children to teething problem and weight shedding and result to serious child health detoleration and serious health consequence if not properly checked by health educators. There are task given to pregnant women i.e. to be circumcised because its believed that, if not done before giving birth, it can cause still birth and it can make the women sleep around with men for sexual satisfaction. Other insist that every girl child should be circumcised either at birth or during age group festival. If not they will not get married, it is also traditionally believed and forbidden for another man to have a shake or touch a married woman’s hand or wrist and even ride at the back of motor cycle with a married woman and all this could cause disease affliction on the husband and child and other superstitious outcome of close relationship with a married woman which were seen as deliberate traditional believe in avoidance of marital promiscuity and few of the gods (Otite, 2006).
Ogbe (2003) in Ekanem (2003) provided catalogue of some ancestral food taboo and consequence with regard to mental illness. Porcupine according to him is associated with infertility, sweet yam is a servant of the gods and body rashes. Hawk is a servant of gods and causes death. Iguana is a mediator between people and the spirit world and cause affliction, all these mentioned above varies from culture, to religion, as what is regarded as a traditional belief in Nigeria.
In Emu-Obodeti, Ndokwa West people do not eat snail which is nutritious in value, is associated with Anaemia prevention and obtain of micro and macro nutrient in exo-skeletal organism for blood and bone formation vital for mother and child health. Those taboos and beliefs prevent mother and young children from obtaining adequate nutrient thus causing them to be malnourished (Musa 2003).
Alkaija (2002) said that there may be plenty of food yet there is shortage of food because of tradition and cultural practices. Pregnant women are forbidden from eating snail, okro, groundnut and so on because they believed that it will cause the baby, when born to run excessive saliva from the mouth.
Pregnant women suffer from anaemia which could lead to maternal and infant mortality and morbidity as a result of absence of some vital nutrients in her diet this are health consequences that are associated with food taboos and when children are not well nourished, they are prone to infections and disease such as Kwashiorkor, marasmus, obesity, dental carries, scurvy (disease caused by dietary deficiency etc. Female genital mutilation is another cultural practice detrimental to the health of females it results to a condition called Vesico Vagina Fistula (VVF) tetanus infection and even death from bleeding.
Otiono (2001) and Heise (2001) stated that violence can be devasting to women reproductive health as well as other aspect of her physical and mental well being in addition of causing injury and increase women long term risk of numbers of health problem as the operation is carried out without the application of anesthesia therapy, thereby causing much pain to the individual and may lead to shock. It may also lead to injury of the adjacent tissue.
Mordi (2001) in Dave (2001) stated that there negative health consequences of (FGM) include damage to perium or anus vulva, tumours, painful sexual intercourse, frigidity (not sexually responsive) and infertility. There are also the risk of transmission of blood borne disease such as hepatitis B virus (HFV) and HIV/AIDS, human immune virus from the use of unsterile cutting instrument during group mutilation. As there is traditional beliefs that illness occur as a result of sin committed against the gods and have no medical cure, it is regarded as punishment from the ancestors as a result of their belief system even serious infection condition like HIV/AIDS, the individual is not given any medical care again when a man is made to avoid sexual relationship with spouse because she is nursing a baby, until after six months, this gives an opportunity for infidelity (unfaithfulness) which could lead to contacting HIV/AIDS.
Okafor (2005) states that menstruation is a phenomenon which is now so beautifully manage that one hardly recognize a menstruation. Let alone avoid her. Women under menstruation are not allowed to bath in the river or village stream or use water from the stream to wash as this may cause illness to users. United State Agency for International Development (USAID) (2004) opined that a fully immunized child is strong and healthy and remains the greatest asset to the family and nation.
Kalu (2002) define emotional abuse as behavioural condition or interactions that elicit extreme feelings of fear, worthlessness, guilt, depression, and pathological behavioural reactions. Akinuwusi (2004) opined that female genital mutilation leads to phobia for sexual intercourse. Otite (2006) stated that menstruation or other discharge from woman vagina, uterus is believed to have power to pollute or poison anything. This lead to fear when a man is involve in sexual intercourse with woman menstruation most especially traditional title holders because some men who violate these taboos end up being punished by the gods because of their belief system the social lifestyle of the individual is affected as she or he will not mix freely in the society which can lead to depression and anxiety.
Also Ogundele (2004) stated that female genital mutilation causes female to suffer mental distress, depression as a result of inability to discuss problem related to sexual organs with others for fear of traditional beliefs and even to express the word sex which is viewed traditionally as taboo if not married and some who are married cannot discuss their sexual life with her husband.
Implication of health education
Udoh (2005) stated that health education is a process with intellectual, psychological and social dimension relating to activities which increase the abilities of people to make informed decision affecting their personal, family, and community well being.
Moronkota (2003) stated that health education is a concept discipline, course or study, approach or method by which the right health information is made available to people and as the same time stimulating positive health practices in them to promote personal and community health.
Okonkwon (2003) and Udoh (2003) stated that an individual who is educated about health is already informed. He or she uses the information in his/her daily life to achieve optimal level of health. The information provided should be able to make sufficient impact on the attitude of the recipient so as to bring about positive change in health behaviour.
According to Mordi (2004) the aim of health education is to help people to achieve health by their own action and effort. Health education brings the interest of the people in improving their conditions of living and aims at developing a sense of responsibility for their own betterment as an individual and as member of families, communities or government. From the fore going, the role of health education in the control or taboos among human traditional belief system cannot be overemphasized. Briggs (2000) stated that health education is concerned with promoting healthy behaviour. Through health education, he further stated, people understand and become aware of their behaviour that may affect their health. Health education focuses on encouraging behaviours that promotes health, prevent illness, cure disease and facilities rehabilitation.
WHO (1948) defined health as a state of complete, physical, mental and social wellbeing of an individual and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Therefore, for health education to achieve its goals in correcting taboos, it is important for health education to understand the problem that these cultural belief have passed over the years.
Role of health education in correcting traditional belief
The role of health education in correcting the traditional perceived consequences according to Briggs (2000);
- Advocacy: It is important that government and non governmental agencies should create awareness through seminar, symposium and workshop. Policy makers at all levels would be the target as well as human right organization and other bodies interested in the health of individuals, groups and community. Other channels include advertising in the mass media, pamphlet, electronic media can also be used to bring to the public awareness on the problems superstitious beliefs, nutrition/food and taboos and beliefs in supernatural powers with accurate facts from research findings as this may bring about changes in perception and behaviour that may lead to improvement in the control of the practice of cultural beliefs.
- Antenatal care clinic: Health education in antenatal and post-natal clinics can correct some taboos that affect the health of the mother and baby so as to reduce maternal mortality and infant morbidity rate in the society.
- Culture: The only thing that is constant in life is change, it is important that certain cultures which affect the health of the society in order to punish them should be abolished.
- Family: Is known as the basic unit for human socialization hence the important of the family in correcting and eradication of these taboo, is very pertinent it is therefore important that family life education be included in the post primary and tertiary institution.
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