Importance of good feeding habits to nutritional and health status   

Introduction

Food-related decisions made by individuals are influenced by a complex array of factors and processes. These include demographic factors, familial and household influences, habit and price, health considerations, ethical concerns, wider societal trends and the acquired knowledge and attitudes towards food. According to Brug (2008), there is a link between knowledge, attitudes, skills, social, environmental influences, and behaviour towards eating habits. For example, the health belief model on eating habit theorises that in order for behaviour change to take place, an individual must first believe that change is both possible and beneficial, and that the benefits of changing outweigh any perceived costs of making the change (Nutbeam & Harris, 2014).

MacDowell, Bonnell and Davis (2010) stated that there is a strong relationship between healthy eating habit and an individual’s attitudes towards a particular set of behaviours, and the subsequent willingness or ability to make changes to improve or protect health. For example, if individuals do not consider their diet to be unhealthy, they are unlikely to make any significant dietary changes to improve their health – especially if they perceive that doing so would mean substituting food they like for food they may like less. In addition, eating habit may be affected by the impact of external factors such as social and environmental influences on individual behaviour. For example, the likelihood of a child eating five portions of fruit and vegetables a day will be influenced by social factors (e.g. their parents’ views on healthy eating), and environmental factors (e.g. the availability of fruit and vegetables at home).

Bandura (2015) is of the opinion that good nutrition is critical to maintain health for people of all ages and also on the front lines of a battle against obesity, a condition that is affecting a very high percentage of young adults worldwide.  Healthy eating could contribute to a healthier population, increased quality of life and reduced health care costs.

Conceptual framework

According to Roberts (2010), the term eating habits (or food habits) refers to why and how people eat, which foods they eat, and with whom they eat, as well as the ways people obtain, store, use, and discard food. Individual, social, cultural, religious, economic, environmental, and political factors all influence people’s eating habits.

National Centre for Social Research (2008) stated that all humans eat to survive. In some cases, people eat to express appreciation, for a sense of belonging, as part of family customs, and for self-realization. For example, someone who is not hungry may eat a piece of cake that has been baked in his or her honour. People eat according to learned behaviours regarding etiquette, meal and snack patterns, acceptable foods, food combinations, and portion sizes.

Shaw, O’Rourke, Del and Kenardy (2015) described a meal as the consumption of two or more foods in a structured setting at a set time. Snacks consist of a small amount of food or beverage eaten between meals. A common eating pattern is three meals (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) per day, with snacks between meals. The components of a meal vary across cultures, but generally include grains, such as rice or noodles; meat or a meat substitute, such as fish, beans, or tofu; and accompaniments, such as vegetables. Various food guides provide suggestions on foods to eat, portion sizes, and daily intake. However, personal preferences, habits, family customs, and social setting largely determine what a person consumes.

Overview of feeding habit

The feeding habits or pattern of an individual are influenced by the following factors:

1. Why and how people eat?
2. What people eat?
3. Methods of obtaining, storing, using, and discarding food
4. Exposure to foods
5. Influences on food choices

Why and how people eat?

According to Shaw et al. (2015), the primary purpose why humans eat is to survive. Apart from the primary purpose, people also eat for other reasons which include the expression of appreciation, sense of belonging, custom and for self realization. For example, someone who is not hungry may eat a piece of cake that has been baked in his or her honour. People eat according to learned behaviours regarding etiquette, meal and snack patterns, acceptable foods, food combinations, and portion sizes. Etiquette refers to acceptable behaviours. For example, for some groups it is acceptable to lick one’s fingers while eating, while for other groups this is rude behaviour. Etiquette and eating rituals also vary depending on whether the meal is formal, informal, or special (such as a meal on a birthday or religious holiday).

A meal is usually defined as the consumption of two or more foods in a structured setting at a set time. Snacks consist of a small amount of food or beverage eaten between meals. A common eating pattern is three meals (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) per day, with snacks between meals. The components of a meal vary across cultures, but generally include grains, such as rice or noodles; meat or a meat substitute, such as fish, beans, or tofu; and accompaniments, such as vegetables. Various food guides provide suggestions on foods to eat, portion sizes, and daily intake. However, personal preferences, habits, family customs, and social setting largely determine what a person consumes.

What and how people eat is determined by a variety of factors, including economic circumstances, cultural norms, and religious restrictions. Here, an Iranian family sits on the floor and eats from a cloth laden with regional delicacies.

1.What people eat?

Haviland (2010) pointed out that different cultures have different foods that are both acceptable and unacceptable foods, though this is not determined by whether or not something is edible. For example, some people eat snails but they are unacceptable as food for some other group of persons. Likewise, alligators, dog, and horses are eaten (and even considered a delicacy) in some cultures, though they are unacceptable food sources in other cultures. In some cultures or professions, there are also rules concerning with whom or where it is appropriate to eat.

2.Obtaining, storing, using, and discarding food

Lowenberg (2009) observed that the methods in which humans acquire, store, and discard food varies from place to place. According to him, some people may grow, fish, or hunt some of their food, or they may purchase most of it from supermarkets or specialty stores. If there is limited access to energy sources, people may store small amounts of foods and get most of what they eat on a day-to-day basis. In homes with abundant space and energy, however, people purchase food in bulk and store it in freezers, refrigerators, and pantries. In either case there must also be properly disposal facilities to avoid environmental and health problems.

3.Exposure to foods

Klimis-Zacas (2011) stated that there are numerous food combinations and flavours to choose from when deciding on what to eat. She also added that for naturally tasty foods, their flavours or food combinations are easily acceptable, but others especially the not too tasty must be developed over time or be learned. Sweetness is a universally acceptable flavour, but a taste for salty, savoury, spicy, tart, bitter, and hot flavours must be learned. The more a person is exposed to a food –and encouraged to eat it – the greater the chances that the food will be accepted. As the exposure to a food increases, the person becomes more familiar and less fearful of the food, and acceptance may develop. Some persons only eat specific foods and flavour combinations, while others like trying different foods and flavours.

4.Influences on food choices

In making food choices, there are many factors that determine what foods a person eats. In addition to personal preferences, there are cultural, social, religious, economic, environmental, and even political factors (Kittler & Sucher, 2008). In a bit to elaborate of these factors, they stated ad follow;

• Individual preferences: Every individual has unique likes and dislikes concerning foods. These preferences develop over time, and are influenced by personal experiences such as encouragement to eat, exposure to a food, family customs and rituals, advertising, and personal values. For example, one person may not like salad, despite the fact that they are a family favourite.
• Cultural influences: A cultural group provides guidelines regarding acceptable foods, food combinations, eating patterns, and eating behaviours. Compliance with these guidelines creates a sense of identity and belonging for the individual. Within large cultural groups, subgroups exist that may practice variations of the group’s eating behaviours, though they are still considered part of the larger group. For example, a hamburger, French fries, and a soda are considered a typical American meal. Someone who is repeatedly exposed to certain foods is less hesitant to eat them. For example, lobster traditionally was only available on the coasts, and is much more likely to be accepted as food by coastal dwellers. Vegetarians in the United States, however, they eat “veggie-burgers” made from mashed beans, pureed vegetables, or soy, and people on diets may eat a burger made from lean turkey. In the United States these are appropriate cultural substitutions, but a burger made from horsemeat would be unacceptable.
• Social influences: Members of a social group depend on each other, share a common culture, and influence each other’s behaviours and values. A person’s membership in particular peer, work, or community groups impacts food behaviours. For example, a young person at a basketball game may eat certain foods when accompanied by friends and other foods when accompanied by his or her coach.
• Religious influences: Religious proscriptions range from a few to many, from relaxed to highly restrictive. This will affect a follower’s food choices and behaviours. For example, in some religions specific foods are prohibited, such as pork among Jewish and Muslim adherents. Within Christianity, the Seventh-day Adventists discourage ‘stimulating” beverages such as alcohol, which is not forbidden among Catholics.
• Economic influences: Money, values, and consumer skills all affect what a person purchases. The price of a food, however, is not an indicator of its nutritional value. Cost is a complex combination of a food’s availability, status, and demand.
• Environmental influences: The influence of the environment on food habits derives from a composite of ecological and social factors. Foods that are commonly and easily grown within a specific region frequently become a part of the local cuisine. However, modern technology, agricultural practices, and transportation methods have increased the year-round availability of many foods, and many foods that were previously available only at certain seasons or in specific areas are now available almost anywhere, at any time.
• Political influences: Political factors also influence food availability and trends. Food laws and trade agreements affect what is available within and across countries, and also affect food prices. Food labelling laws determine what consumers know about the food they purchase, Eating habits are thus the result of both external factors, such as politics, and internal factors, such as values. These habits are formed, and may change, over a person’s lifetime.

Causes of poor feeding habit

The causes of poor feeding habit according to Action Renter (1995) as cited in Ohwojeroh (2014) include the following;

1. Poverty: People of low economic status, low income, job loss, unemployment, suffer poor nutrition or hunger. According to Ohwojeroh (2014), at any given time, 8% of children under the age of 12 are at risk of hunger for a total of 13.6 million children experiencing food insecurity in worldwide.
2. Depression: This is a medical condition in which a person feels very sad anxious and often has physical symptoms such as being unable to sleep, eat, think (cognitive), etc. Poor feeding habit can also be caused by depression as a result of the person not feeding well (Ritche, 2011).
3. Awareness/ignorance of education: There is a regular saying which states that ignorance is a disease. Ukpore (2005) opined that the study of food nutrition exposes a person to the right sources of food to the social culture, economic and psychological implications of food and food habits. This therefore means that education is important.
4. Infectious diseases: The connection between food and sickness is well established. Food borne and infectious diseases can result in malnutrition. Poor feeding habits leave children and adults more susceptible to contracting life-threatening diseases such as diarrhoea and respiratory infections.
5. Under-nutrition: (Not getting enough to eat on a regular basis) and being poor can delay brain development and ability to learn. The longer the child does not get enough to eat, the greater the chance of learning delay.

Importance of good feeding habits to health status

In order for the bodies to function properly and stay healthy, it is important that we follow a good nutritious diet. Foods are made up of six (6) classes of nutrients. These nutrients are macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, fats), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and water. If an individual neglect to have the right combination of these six classes of foods, it will be very difficult to live a healthy lifestyle and achieve a health nutritional status (Mahan, 2010).

The following are the importance of good feeding habit to health status:

1. Building blocks of muscles

When an individual eats foods that contain protein, they are broken down in the body as amino acids. These amino acids are then used to build and repair any muscle tissue. This is great for those who are physically active or exercise regularly. This means you will be able to recover at a faster rate than if you were not to consume protein. Every tissue in your body is made up of protein and it is important to consume enough through your diet to replenish it. Protein is also needed to help your immune and nervous system (Mahan, 2010).

2. Provision of energy

Foods such as carbohydrates give energy to function properly throughout the day. In fact, muscle glycogen is an important element to helping you maintain your energy levels throughout your day. When carbohydrates are ingested the pancreas releases a hormone called insulin. Insulin helps the carbohydrates to be stored in the muscles or as fat. Stored carbohydrates in the body are also known as glycogen. They will be an energy supply and not only enable you to achieve better fat loss results, but also help your overall physique (Mahan, 2010).

3. Provision of fats

Without fats an individual will not be able to survive. They are one of the three macronutrients. Stored fats are our main source of energy. They also help to keep our body warm during cold weather. Fats lubricate joints which in terms, keeps the muscles loose and mobile for better workouts. Fats are also a dwelling spot for fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, E, and K. These vitamins are stored in our body’s fat and can become toxic if too much is taken (Mahan, 2010).

4. Provision of vitamins and minerals

Vitamins and minerals are important nutrients the bodies need in order not only to function properly but also allow chemical reactions to occur at a faster rate. B-complex vitamins provide a great health benefit as they help to further break down carbohydrates which in terms will gives energy (Mahan, 2010).

5.   Prevention of nutritional deficiencies

Many nutritional deficiencies, such as rickets and scurvy, used to be common for children to have but are now very rare. This is because we now know that proper nutrition prevents the dangerous effects of disorders caused by nutritional deficiencies. It is important to make sure children get enough vitamins and minerals, by eating foods from all of the recommended food groups daily, especially fruits and vegetables (Mahan, 2010).

6.   Prevention of obesity

Good feeding habits like eating fruits and vegetables every day and limiting sugar intake prevents obesity. Childhood and adolescent obesity is becoming such a problem that obesity-related health problems which adults often have are now appearing in children and adolescent. There are now cases of type II diabetes and high cholesterol in school children. If children and adolescents are taught good nutritional practices by their parents, they are less likely to be over-nourished and become obese. Good feeding habits like eating fruits and vegetables every day and limiting sugar intake prevents childhood and adolescent obesity related problems that can last an entire lifetime (Buwa, 2014).

7.   Disease prevention

Too much or too little of certain nutrients can also contribute to health issues. For instance, a lack of calcium in an individual’s diet can predispose one to developing osteoporosis, or weakening of the bones, while too much saturated fat can cause cardiovascular disease, and too few fruits and vegetables in an individual feeding plan is associated with an increased incidence of cancer. Consuming foods from a wide variety of sources helps ensure your body has the nutrients it needs to avoid these health problems (Buwa, 2014).

Signs and symptoms of poor feeding habits

According to Ohwojeroh (2014), the following are the signs and symptoms of poor nutritional status:

1. Weight changes

Changes in weight, be in gain or loss, are not always a symptom of poor feeding habit.  It is perfectly possible to gain or lose weight whilst eating a healthy balanced and nutritious diet.  However, often a rapid weight change may indicate changing eating patterns and be an early sign of poor feeding habit. Weight loss, particularly to levels that are considered unhealthy, may occur due to decreased intake, which leaves the risk of not enough food being consumed to meet requirements.  On the other hand, weight gain may be due to excessive intake of high calorie, low nutrient foods which do not provide the necessary nutrition.

2. Disease and illness

As many nutrients found in food are essential for the processes that take place in the body, if these are not consumed things can start to go wrong.  Lack of certain nutrients can lead to debilitating conditions which in the long term can have serious consequences. Lack of calcium for example, especially during years of bone growth, can lead to osteoporosis late in life, while a lack of iron can lead to anaemia.  Not enough vitamin B₁₂ can lead to nervous system problems over time and lack of vitamin A results in blindness, although this is mainly seen in populations with very low intake due to lack of food supply such as in third world countries.

It is common that people with poor nutritional intake are often more susceptible to viruses and infections as their body lacks the energy and nutrients needed to feed the immune system and fight disease.  These people may seem to constantly have a cold or the flu and rarely appear to be completely healthy.

If you suspect you have a condition caused by lack of a certain nutrient or by a poor diet in general, see your health professional to determine if this is the case.  Symptoms associated with malnutrition are often similar to those of many other conditions, so it is essential to get a correct diagnosis to determine the right treatment.

3. Tiredness and lack of concentration

Although these may not seem as serious as a full blown disease or condition, feeling lethargic, tired and unable to concentrate can make everyday activities a lot more difficult and can impact your life in a big way from how you perform at work to having enough energy to do exercise.

Tiredness can be related to a huge number of nutrient deficiencies, although the most common are things like iron, particularly in women and athletes, B₁₂ and water.  Skipping meals can also lead to lethargy as the body is not receiving the energy it requires to function.

4. Physical symptoms

Sometimes it is possible to see physical effects of a poor diet.  These could be things like flaky, dry skin, lifeless, thin hair, cracked nails, diarrhoea or constipation, poor oral health and poor would healing.  In severe cases, infertility, and lack of menstruation in women may result.

5. Conditions with high risk of poor feeding habit.

There are many conditions that may impact negatively on nutrition status and lead to inadequate intake.  For example those undergoing cancer treatments often experience changes in appetite which can lead to a drop in intake and poor nutrient intake at a time when they need it most.

Elderly people, especially those that are ill or have an impairment of some nature are also susceptible as many will rely on others for food or even forget to eat as well as a reduced appetite being common in old age. Those with eating disorders who are severely reducing intake are at a very high risk, as are alcoholics who may neglect food in favour of drinks which provide little or no nutrients.

Effects of feeding habit on body mass index (BMI)

In the opinion of Mahan (2010), whether underweight, normal, overweight or obese, an individual’s feeding pattern to a large extend plays a crucial role in addition to the individual’s lifestyle, the nature of the individual’s job and environment. She also when further to state that the rate of calorie intake verses energy expended determine an individual body mass index.

Feeding pattern and underweight

To carry out the normal day to day activities, the body needs energy which is provided by intake of food. If an individual’s diet is unable to provide enough calories for the body as compared to the amount of energy expended in carrying out the normal daily activities, underweight is certainly to set it. (Gjesdal, 2008). One may be underweight because poor dietary decision which is not providing enough energy (calories). This can happen for a number of reasons. Stress or other emotional problems can sometimes cause a change in eating patterns that is hard to recognise.

The are several other reason which can lead to underweight, they include;

• Sickness
• Skipping breakfast or lunch and just eating snacks on the go
• Lost your appetite, perhaps because of stress or worries
• Trying to lose weight. Focused on being ‘thin’ or looking a certain way than on being a healthy weight
• Not eating because of feeling of control or power

Although very many people feel good about themselves by remaining underweight, Zeratsky (2011) stated that being underweight can be bad for an individual’s health now and in the future, for the following reasons:

1. If an individual is underweight, he or she is more likely to be lacking vital nutrients that the body needs to grow and work properly. Calcium, for example, is important for the maintenance of strong and healthy bones. Being underweight increases the risk of osteoporosis (fragile bone disease) later in life.
2. If an individual is not consuming enough iron, he or she is likely to develop anaemia (a lack of red blood cells), which leaves the individual feeling drained and tired.
3. The immune system of an individual is not 100% when he or she is underweight, making the individual more likely to catch a cold, flu or other infections.
4. For women, this may lead to interrupted periods and difficultyin become pregnant. Women who are underweight can find that their periods stop earlier than others. This increases the risk of problems with fertility.

Relationship between feeding habits and overweight or obesity

Weight is a product of energy balance: energy intake versus energy expenditure. There are specific feeding pattern according to Schlosser (2011) that contribute significantly to overweight and obesity.

They are:

• Restaurant and fast food consumption
• Large portion sizes
• Beverages with sugar added
• Fruits and vegetables
• Breakfast consumption

1. Restaurant/fast food consumption

Restaurant and fast food consumption now represents 32% of the total calories ingested per person, or one-third of daily total energy. The amount of calories consumed per eating occasion is greater from food prepared away from home as compared with food prepared at home. Eating restaurant or fast food increases energy intake, and people who consume this food have a significantly higher odds of being overweight compared with those who do not eat fast food. There is a positive association between the frequency of eating restaurant or fast food and increases in body weight. Thus, multiple lines of evidence indicate that frequency of eating restaurant or fast food is associated with positive energy balance and excessive weight.

2.Large portion size

Portion size is closely related to restaurant and fast food consumption; the largest food portions. The greater the amount of food presented to people, the more food is consumed. When portions increase 50% and 100% above baseline, energy intake increases an average of 120% and 130% above energy needs, respectively. Therefore, large portion sizes, as are frequently served in restaurants and fast food establishments, directly increase energy intake, which can lead to excessive weight.

3.Beverages with sugar added

Beverages with sugar added, a combination of soft drinks and fruit drinks, contribute over 40% of sugar added to the average diet. Studies have shown that people who increase intake of the amount of sugar added beverages increase total energy intake and gain weight.

4.Fruits and vegetables

Energy density is a measure of energy content per weight of food. Foods with low energy density tend to have a high water and fibre content, such as fruits and vegetables, whereas high energy dense foods tend to have a high fat content. The intake of high energy dense foods results in greater energy intake than the intake of an equal weight of low energy density food. Consumption of energy dense foods with high fat content positively correlates with increased energy intake. However, this is not an issue only of fat intake because high energy dense food consumption increases energy intake independently of portion size and fat content.

5.Breakfast consumption

Those who do not eat breakfast have a significantly higher BMI than those who eat cereal or bread for breakfast. The exact mechanism of breakfast consumption and improved weight management is unknown; it has been shown that the number of eating episodes is inversely associated with the risk of obesity. Those who eat 4 or more times daily have a 45% lower risk of obesity compared with those who eat less than 4 times a day. Paradoxically, studies show that the total energy intake can be greater in those who eat breakfast. Whether it is the effect of consumption frequency on metabolism, decreased energy intake throughout the rest of the day, or greater health consciousness in terms of energy balance has not been determined. However, the overall nutritional benefits of breakfast consumption outweigh the risks.

Measures to improve feeding habits

The objective of good feeding habit is to maintain normal weight, build tissue, store nutrients and maintain the desirable body weight. The nutrient required for the management of a normal body weight as stated by Buwa (2014) include:

1. Energy: A nutritious high energy diet providing calories over and above the body’s requirement will result in weight gain. An increase of about 500-1000 calper day can result in a weight gain of approximately one kilogram per week.
2. Protein: A liberal intake of high quality protein will help in building up of muscle tissue. A daily protein intake of two grams per kilogram of body weight will be required. For example, if an individual body weight is 60 kg, he or she requires 75 – 120 g of protein.
3. Carbohydrates: A high carbohydrate intake is also necessary to meet the energy requirements of a malnourished body. The bulk of the diet, however, should not be increased as it cuts down food intake. Avoid taking more fibre than is necessary for regular bowel movement.
4. Fats: Fats aid in the weight gain process, but they should only be used in amounts that can be tolerated. Emulsified fats like butter, cream etc. are better tolerated by the body.
5. Minerals and vitamins: These must be provided in sufficient amounts in order to counter for nutritional deficiencies.
6. Monitor your weight regularly: People who weigh themselves at least once a week are more successful in keeping of excess pounds. Monitoring your weight can tell you whether your efforts are working and can help you detect small weight gain before they become big problems.
7. Eat healthy meals and snacks: Focus on low calories, nutrient dense foods such as fruits, vegetables and whole grain. Avoid saturated fat and limit sweet and alcohol. Ensure that you choose food that promotes healthy weight gain and good health more often than you choose food that don’t.
8. Consistence: Stick to your healthy weight plan.

References

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