School dropouts and the social problems they perpetuate in the community

Introduction

Education is the key to the production of human capital that drives the economy of any nation and the quality of the educational system today can to a great extent shape what the country will be tomorrow (Mmezi, 2013). The goal of education as documented in the Federal Government of Nigeria (2008) is essentially to prepare and equip students to enter the world of work. During the school years, students develop positive attitude cognitively, emotionally and behaviourally to face the challenges of life (Rumberger, 2008).

Despite the obvious benefits of education, research findings indicate that school dropout rate in Nigeria is on the increase (Federal Government of Nigeria, 2008). It is sad to note that it is not every child who starts schooling at primary, secondary or tertiary level that completes his or her education. According to Rumberger (2008), dropping out refers to a student quitting school before he or she graduates. It is estimated that 7.3 million students annually dropout of school in Nigeria (UNICEF, 2012). Reasons for dropping out are varied and may include securing an employment, poor grade, avoiding bulling, family emergency, depression and other mental illness, unexpected pregnancy and boredom from lack of lessons relevant to their desired occupations. Personal characteristic, home, finance and society were found by Ikechukwu (2007) as predisposing factors to school drop among adolescents in Nigeria.

The dropout rate of students can be inimical to the economy of a nation when it is high. It can result in lower skilled work force and reduced human capital for a society that focuses on learning, knowledge acquisition and education. The probability of criminal behaviour can increase when students drop out of school (Guleck & Guleck, 2008).

In spite of the efforts of the Nigerian Government to provide free education by introducing Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1976, Universal Basic Education (UBE) in 1999 and State Universal Basic Education (SUBE) in 2000, pupils and students are still dropping out of school for various reasons which may be psychological, emotional and intellectual (academic failure) problems (Egbochuku & Audu, 2014).

Conceptual framework

According to Adeyemi and Olufemi (2009), a dropout is considered a student who for any reason other than death leaves school before graduation without transferring to another school. They further stated that dropping out of school is a well documented social problem and often present daunting circumstances for adolescents, their families and the society at large.

The phenomenon of students discontinuing studies before completing elementary level of education was noted by Ali (2006) as one of the major impediment in achieving the Universal Basic Education (UBE) in Nigeria. In addition, he stated that dropping out of school is a complex social problem for which there is no simple solution. Many educators and others who are concerned with the dropout problem are advocating policies, which involve a broad range of institutions and agencies. Increasingly, it is being recognized that the issues of drop out and its prevention cannot be separated from issues affecting our total economic and social structure. These issues include poverty, unemployment, gender discrimination, child abuse, drug abuse in the family, and many other factors, which are associated with it (Idowu, 2014).

Causes of school dropout

The general causes of school dropout can be grouped in relation to three different levels: pupils and their families, community and school. According to Birdeland, Dilulio and Morrison (2006), factors that may cause school dropout in connection with pupils and their families include:

• Financial problems: Large, dysfunctional and poor families have problems providing adequately for all their children and sometimes require child labour (in the fields or in the household often to help with younger siblings).
• Parents’ educational example: Most often students who drop out come from families where the parents themselves did not spend more than eight years in school. Quite often pupils who have dropped out still hope to complete their studies “to have at least ten years of formal education”, to get some qualifications so they do not end up like their parents, who are unskilled workers and have little chance of ever becoming successful in their lives.
• Siblings’ educational example: Sibling educational example, especially older siblings is much more influential. Families in which elder siblings have left school early often see the younger ones do the same.
• Dysfunctional families: Tribulations like divorce, alcoholism and domestic violence often lead to school dropout.
• Edge-of-law activities: Prostitution, membership of street gangs or of beggars’ networks lead to children dropping out of school. These de-motivating factors particularly apply when a child is moving from low secondary to senior high school or at the beginning of senior high school.
• Employment: Making money through unskilled work, bar work, prostitution or begging during term time always results in early school dropout.

At the community level, the major factors in early school dropout were highlighted by Robin (2008) are as follows:

• Early marriage custom: Early marriage custom often terminates young people’s education, especially in rural communities.
• Having a child: This tends to be a characteristic of certain communities rather than a series of isolated incidents. Not only do girls who give birth typically come from dysfunctional, poor families, but many of their peers are doing the same thing.
• Lack of individual security in the area: In some communities teachers are afraid to interact with parents because of the high crime rate and this lack of cooperation between teachers and parents can increase dropout risks.

Fallis and Opotow (2013) stated that the school could also contribute to dropout by frequent repeating of grades, insufficient pupil integration or poor relationships with teachers and classmates.

Prevalence rate of school dropout in Nigeria

In a report released recently by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) (2014), Nigeria ranked high among nations where a large population of school children is not in the classrooms. The report shows that one out of every five Nigerian children is out of school. The UNESCO Education for All Global Monitoring Report (EAGMR) (2014) said Nigeria holds the world record of having the highest number of its young people out of school. With approximately 10.5 million kids out of school, Nigeria tops the table of 12 other countries, accounting for 47 per cent of the global out-of-school population.

Statistics shows that about 40% of Nigerian children aged 6-11 do not attend any primary school with the Northern region recording the lowest school attendance rate in the country, particularly for girls (Mmezi, 2013). Although it is believed that a significant increase in net enrolment rates was recorded in recent years, it is estimated that about 4.7 million children of primary school age are still not in school.

School dropouts according to Chijioke and Ukpong (2009) are in various categories. For instance, there are some children who finished primary school, but their parents could not afford to send them to secondary schools. Also there are some children who completed secondary school, but could not afford to register for the West Africa Examination Council (WAEC). Even when children enrol in schools, many do not complete the primary cycle.

According to the UNESCO data 30% of pupils drop out of primary school and only 54% transit to Junior Secondary Schools. It is common these days in Nigeria to see youths within the age bracket of 15 to 18 years roaming the streets without any concrete thing to do. Often, these youth engage in drug abuse, drunkenness and smoking and other social vices to the detriment of their lives.

Risk factors for dropping out of school

There are several risk factors that determine the rate at which school children drop out of school. Among the different risk factors, Karl, Entwistle and Horsey (2007) identified the following to top the list:

1. Gender
2. Achievement
3. Behaviour
4. School attendance
5. Student attitudes toward School
6. Family characteristics
7. Peer relationships
8. School organization and practices
9. Community values

• Gender: It appears that boys and girls do not significantly differ in dropout rates. However, they seem to drop out for different reasons: Girls are most likely to drop out of school due to pregnancy and marriage, while boys are more likely to drop out to seek employment. Additionally, boys are twice as likely to dropout as girls due to behavioural difficulties.
• Achievement: Poor academic performance is the single strongest predictor of dropping out of school. Poor grades and low test scores, regardless of ability, may increase students’ frustration and reduce motivation to stay in school. Additionally, retention in grade is highly related to dropping out of school – some research indicates that retained students are three times more likely to dropout than non-retained students.
• Behaviour: Students who drop out are more likely to have a history of serious behaviour problems than those who complete high school, and this history may date back to the primary grades. Prevention efforts may be enhanced by viewing behaviour problems as symptoms of disengagement from school that can be addressed if identified early.
• School attendance: School dropouts have higher rates of chronic truancy and tardiness than those who stay in school. Attendance problems can be an early signal that the student is disengaging from the schooling process; daily school attendance reflects both student motivation and parental support.
• Student attitudes toward school: Students who drop out are more likely to perceive the school setting as non-supportive and/or irrelevant. Some researchers suggest that the students’ psychological attachment to school and investment in learning are keys to academic and social success, and consequently keys to remaining in school.
• Family characteristics: Limited economic resources is highly related to school dropout rates, but the relationship appears to be indirect. Many at-risk factors are related to family income – parents’ education, single parenting, academic achievement, behaviour problems and school attendance. Parent attitudes are clearly related to student engagement in learning and graduation rates: Parents of dropouts are more likely to view school negatively, to have minimal involvement with school and to place little value on school attendance and achievement. Siblings as well as parents are likely to influence a student’s decision to drop out of school – students who have a sibling who dropped out of school are at much higher risk of dropping out themselves. Families from diverse cultures and families whose primary language is not English also face additional barriers to school engagement that appear to place students at-risk for dropping out. School personnel may misunderstand customs and parenting styles as lack of interest in schooling, and fail to identify appropriate and effective means of promoting parent involvement in education. These students are more likely to experience alienation and to disengage from the school setting.
• Peer relationships: Dropouts are more likely than non-dropouts to report social isolation and lack of involvement in school-based social activities. While dropouts tend to be involved in community-based activities, those who remain in school build social networks connected to school activities and develop a sense of “belonging” to the school that seems critical to continued engagement.
• School organization and practices: The school itself appears related to dropout rates. Schools with rigid retention policies, widespread administrative transfers, emphasis on competency testing, tracking and perceived “unfair” discipline practices tend to have higher dropout rates. Large class size, high teacher turnover, low teacher expectations for student performance, and perceived lack of support for students with academic and behaviour problems are also related to student decisions to drop out.
• Community values: The student’s community can also contribute to the desire to remain in school or drop out. Employment opportunities for unskilled workers might encourage dropouts, while communities that clearly value education and encourage school-community partnerships are more likely to establish programs and foster attitudes that maintain student engagement in schooling. Supports available to ethnic minority and low income students are critical to ensure school completion.

Consequences of dropping out of school

There are several consequences of dropping out of school. According to Pirog and Magee (2008), some of the consequences of dropping out of school include:

• Educational limitations
• Unemployment
• Lower income
• Social problems
• Missed opportunities
• Personal challenges

1. Educational limitations: Not only does a school dropout fail to earn a certificate, but they also inhibit their abilities to further their education. The most basic drawback of not having adequate education is that school dropout does not have as much knowledge and training to succeed in adult life. This impact on their personal relationships, entrepreneurial options, employability and overall quality of life.
2. Unemployment: One way in which people are affected by their decision to drop out of school is a greater chance of being unemployed. This lack of employment poses problems down the road as well since work experience, combined with education, contributes to advancement in careers later in life.
3. Lower income: When high school dropouts do find employment, they earn, on average, significantly less than those who completed school. Along with these income deficiencies, many do not get jobs with full benefits and struggle to keep up with life expenses.
4. Social problems: School dropout are likely to be engage in social vices and other criminal activities which lead to incarceration in some sort of correctional facility, such as a jail or juvenile detention centre.
5. Missed opportunities: Another, less tangible consequence of dropping out of high school is missing all the different opportunities that come about as a result of finishing school. School is a good place to explore intellectual interests, play team sports and meet friends. By completing school, students can further expand on those opportunities. Even if they choose not to, they leave that option open for later in life.
6. Personal challenges: Dropping out of school presents a number of personal life challenges as well. Relationships with friends, family and significant others may suffer because of a dropout’s limited education, knowledge and feelings of inadequacy. Additionally, dropouts have higher crime rates. Furthermore, dropping out can have generational impacts in families. Children tend to fall into similar patterns as parents without significant efforts to break the mold.

Prevention and intervention strategies to guide against students dropping out of school

High dropout rates can impact school and community climate; the consequences for the individual student can be enormous as dropping out has life-long impact (Jonosz & LeBlanc, 2010). To guide against this, different preventive and intervention strategies can be put in place to guide against student dropping out of School. Some of these measures as noted by Garnier, Stein and Jacobs (2007) are:

1. Schools should collect data about student performance and characteristics related to dropping out in order to identify potential problems early in the student’s school experience and thus refer students for specific prevention efforts. Tracking student attendance, test scores, grades, behaviour referrals, participation in activities, school attitudes and family participation in school events can provide information to identify students most at risk for later dropping out.
2. Prevention activities might include incentives and supports to improve attendance; programs to encourage parent involvement; early intervention for academic difficulties (such as peer tutoring programs); community and school-based mentorships; and partnerships with community business to connect school to work.
3. The government should development high school alternative programs that provide non-traditional approaches to vocational training and high school completion will also provide options for students who have not been successful in meeting the academic or social demands of the typical school program.
4. Dropout retrieval and re-entry programmes should be implemented to help school dropout transition back to a school environment.
5. Some students will also need flexible school hours to fit in needed work opportunities, in-school child care, low teacher-student ratios to ensure more individual support, individual and group counselling and mentoring.

The role of teachers to help students stay in school

In addition school-wide strategies and programmes to keep students in school, individual teachers and support staff can help encourage school involvement for students at risk for dropping out. Some of the roles teachers can play to help students stay in school as stated by Elliot and Voss (2014) include:

1. Focusing on student goals
2. Encourage school involvement
3. Consider alternative school settings
4. Consider realistic post-secondary goals
5. Identify special needs

• Focusing on students’ goals: Instead of focusing on why the student is unsuccessful in school, teachers should pay attention to what the student wants to get from the school experience. Teachers should guide students to list their school, home and personal barriers to reaching that goal. Sometimes talking about getting past the barriers to reaching a goal helps focus efforts more productively than just complaining or quitting.
• Encourage school involvement: Teachers should encourage the student to attend school regularly and to be involved in at least one extra-curricular activity at school or with groups of students who are currently in school. These activities make the student feel part of the group, important to the school and more motivated to perform in order to participate. If students’ lack of academic success restricts them from every activity except academics, they often see no value in continuing to try. They must have something positive to look forward to that will meet the kinship/companionship needs of being a teenager.
• Consider alternative school settings: Teachers should speak with the parent, school counsellor and/or school psychologist to see if the student’s goals can be reached in the current school environment. If not, discuss options for alternative settings. Include the student in all discussions with school personnel. If parents decide to investigate alternative education settings, encourage the student to make the contacts, visits, complete forms and ask questions. He/she must see that personal responsibility is a must when being asked to be treated as an adult.
• Consider realistic post-secondary goals: Not every student is appropriately school-bound. Help the student to identify strengths and areas of interest, and to explore career options that maximize interests and skills. If attending school is the way to reach the student’s vocational goal, teachers should help to set steps in place to get there.
• Identify special needs: Teachers should consult with parents and other school personnel to determine if the student might have a specific learning or behaviour problem interfering with learning. Low achievement, retention in grade and behavioural difficulties are highly predictive of dropping out of school. Assessment of possible learning and behaviour problems might help identify special services to help the student find school more successful.

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