Influence of poor nutrition on academic performance of school-aged children

Introduction

Nutrition has to do with the food we eat as human beings to survive. According to Odejerho (2014) in his “Manual on Mental Health”, the food we eat sustains our existence. He said our physique, health and fitness status are linked to what we drink and what we eat. Frances (2008) defined nutrition as the science of how food nourishes the body, he explained that nutrition is a fascinating, much talked about subject in the universal. He noted the study of nutrition enables the individual learn which foods serve him best and how he can work out ways of choosing foods, planning meals, and designing diet wisely.

Ene-Obong(2001) also claimed that food is the most basic requirement of living organisms. He supports that food builds the body, provides energy for living and working and regulates the mechanisms essential for health and survival of life. It is the basic vehicle of satisfying man’s hunger. And when an individual chooses foods with nutrition in mind, he enhances his own well-being, because every food choices man make can influence his health for better or worse. Each day nutritional choices may benefit or harm the health of man only a little but when these choices are repeated over years and decades, the rewards or consequences become major.

Nutrition has also been viewed by Barasi (2007) as the process of breaking down food and substances taken in the mouth to use for energy in the body. It is also seen as the process of obtaining and consuming food and utilizing foods. Ndungi (1982) opined that nutrition is the science that deals with all the various factors of which food is composed and the way in which proper nourishment is brought about.

Thus, nutrition can be said to be the study of food at work in the human body and it is the key to develop and maintain a state of health that is optimal for the individual. The absence of good nutrition in the body exposes the individual to risk factors for life threatening, chronic diseases and death. Having seen the concepts of nutrition, we are going to take a look at some concepts of nutritional quality in pupils’ meal.

Nwokocha (2014) claimed that nutritional quality of meals depends on the nutritive value of food substance which is the nutrients present in such food that is required in a balanced amount to produce and maintain optimum health. Therefore, a pupil’s meal ought to contain all the required nutrients that will provide the body with energy required to perform external activities, mental activities and also to provide materials for growth and repair of tissues for normal functioning of the body. Nwokocha also claimed that quality nutrition promotes good health and that the type of food a person eats, its quantity and quality largely determine ones physiological well-being.

According to Ojimelukwe, Asumugha and Omeire (2005), quality nutrition has a good food material that will be able to supply nutrients, satisfy physiological requirements and have good sensory appeal and desirable attributes. Thus, quality meal reduces the risk of illnesses and future chronic diseases and also helps to build the immune system thereby enables the individual’s body to resist diseases and infections. It is evidence that human being needs good nutrition to achieve full growth potential and appropriate body composition especially during the period of adolescence to promote health and well-being and to reduce the risk of chronic diseases in adulthood.

Conceptual framework

Nutrition touches virtually every aspect of human endeavour, as it is of central importance to health. Research carried out in the past has shown that differences in growth and well-being often results from diets consumed. According to Alade(2001), nutrition must be concerned with the social economic, cultural and psychological factors relating to food consumption, food production and distribution. He elaborated that when a man is in good health, nutritionally, he feels good. And that he has vitality (he does not tire easily) and he is healthy. He is also emotionally stable and enthusiastic about life. When an individual is well-nourished, it reflects in one’s appearance and behaviour.

Mudambi and Rajagopal (1982) saw good nutrition as a fuel to the human body just as fuel is to a vehicle. They explained further that nutrition includes everything that happens to food from the time it is eaten until it is used for various functions in the body and food is anything  eaten or drunk, which can be absorbed by the body to be used as an energy source, building regulating or protective material.

Another view of nutrition is that of Okaka, Akobundu and Okaka, (2006), in their view, nutrition is the science of foods, the nutrient substances, their actions, interaction and balance in relationship  to health and diseases, the process by which the organism ingests, digests, absorbs, transport and utilizes nutrients and disposes of their end. They stressed that food is any substance, solid or liquid which when eaten and digested has the ability to provide nourishment for the body and that food is made up of chemical substances which when consumed, digested and absorbed by the body will lead to the promotion of growth, supply of energy and regulate different body processes.

Moreso, Nwokocha (2014) said that human nutrition deals specially with food and nourishment. According to her, nutrition helps in the promotion of physical and mental efficiency of the individuals thereby contributing to the control of diseases and prolongation of life. Thus, the absence of good nutrition can lead to diseases and untimely death, and on the other hand, nutritious food helps the individual maintain good health and recover from illness easily.

According to Mkpughe, Oladokun and Osia, (2001), nutrition is the  study of food and it includes everything that happens to food from the time it is eaten until it is used for various functions in the body. They went further to say that the study of the science of nutrition deals with what nutrients we need, how much we need, why we need the nutrients and where we can get them. Nutrition is also seen as the intake of food, considered in relation to the body’s dietary needs (Barasi, 2007). Thus, good nutrition is adequate, well balanced diet combined with regular physical activity is a cornerstone of good health.

Ladau (2010) viewed good nutrition as getting the right amount of nutrients from healthy foods in the right combinations. Therefore, having nutrition knowledge and making smart choices about foods you eat can and will help the individual achieve optimum health over his/her life and it will serve as a key to avoiding obesity, illness and many of today’s most prevalent chronic diseases  such as heart attack, stroke, cancers, diabetes and so on.

Hence, nutrition is at work during our entire lifecycle – starting from infancy to adolescence, adulthood and in our senior years and can be the antidote for many of today’s common problems such as stress, pollution, sexual vitality and disease prevention. (Ojimelukwe et al., 2005).

School feeding programme in Nigeria

School feeding initiatives originated as early as the late 1700s as the projects of charitable donors in Europe. However, concentrated school feeding interventions did not appear until the mid-1800s, as governments began incorporating school meals into their legislation. After World War II in 1945, the United States began the practice of initiating school feeding programs in Austria as an act of international aid focused on combating the severe malnutrition of children. Since that time, school feeding programs have become a key part of food assistance and relief in emergency and development programs.

In developing countries, hunger and malnutrition account for the death of children and contribute greatly to the quality of a child’s health, life and chance for survival, hence Akanbi and Alayande (2011) said that in the realization of the central role of nutrition to education, the Federal Government of Nigeria in collaboration with the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD), World Food Program (WFP), United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and other International Development Partners (IDPs), developed the Home Grown School Feeding and Health Programme (HGSFHP). They said that the School feeding programme in Nigeria was launched on Monday 26th September, 2005 at Pilot Science Primary School, Kuje-Abuja under the coordination of the Federal Ministry of Education (FME) and it took off with 2.5 million pupils with the following expected outcomes.

1. To alleviate short term hunger: Short term hunger is a transitory non-clinical form of hunger that can affect physical and learning capacity. As is well known, children who are hungry in class are more likely to have difficulty concentrating; and performing complex tasks even if they are well nourished.
2. To increase school attendance, retention and completion of basic schooling: The food given to pupils is expected to attract pupils to school, retain them in school and is to serve as an incentive for families to release their ward for schooling, especially children from vulnerable group.
3. To reduce gender inequalities in education: School feeding programme is expected to directly tackle gender inequalities by attracting both girls and boys to schools. Also School feeding programme generates opportunities for assisted pupils or students to share a nutritious meal regardless of their status, social class and gender.
4. To improve health and nutritional status of pupils: School feeding is also expected to provide macronutrients together with essential vitamins enabling pupils to learn, function and develop physically and intellectually.

In addition, Uwameiye and Salami (2013) opined that the Federal Government of Nigeria initiated the Home Grown School Feeding and Health Programme (HGSFHP) in conjunction with the United Nation Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) in order to address the gaps in basic education and to provide a nutritionally-adequate meal during the school day. And that the Home Grown School Feeding and Health Program is a new project that will support government action to deliver cost effective School feeding programme in sub-saharan Africa.  In addition, the project aim to promote local agriculture and benefit rural farmers by using locally-sourced food, providing regular orders and a reliable income for local farmers, the majority of whom are women, while improving the education, health and nutrition of children (UNICEF, 2006).

According to Isa, Ahmed, Khalid and Sherif (2012), the overall goal of the Home Grown School Feeding and Health Program in Nigeria is to reduce hunger and malnutrition among school children and to enhance the achievement of Universal Basic Education. Isa et al. (2012) stressed that school feeding can be provided as meals or snack to be eaten during school hours or distributed as dry take home food ration to pupils at the end of each day, month or school term, if they attended school regularly.

Akanbi and Alayande (2011) stated that school feeding programs help keep children in school and create markets for poor food farmers. Thus, they are linking school feeding directly with agricultural development. In addition, the scheme, officially known as the Home-Grown School Feeding Programme insists on buying from local farmers the rice, beans, diary and other ingredients used to prepare the food children are given in schools. It therefore reduces malnutrition while providing local farmers with the opportunities to sell their produce to schools. School meals connect teachers, parents, cooks, children, farmers and the local market. Furthermore, it can serve as a platform for essential package Interventions: water, sanitation, nutrition, health and hygiene education, school gardens, improved environmental technologies and practices that will be fed into the program to ensure sustainability (Isa et al., 2012).

The importance of nutrition to man

The importance of nutrition to man cannot be overemphasized for an individual to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Nwokocha (2014) said good nutrition equates to receiving adequate macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and water) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) so that the body can stay healthy, grow properly, and work effectively. The phrase “you are what you eat” refers to the fact that your body will respond to the food it receives, either good or bad. Processed, sugary, high-fat, and excessively salted foods leave the body tired and unable to perform effectively. By contrast, eating fresh, natural whole foods fuels the body by providing what it needs to produce energy, promote metabolic activity, prevent micronutrient deficiencies, ward off chronic disease, and to promote a sense of overall health and well-being.

Ladau (2010) asserted that nutrition in certain foods can naturally increase the body’s oxygen levels, eliminates many sources of toxins, improve digestion and prevent, heal or reduce the severity of various diseases. She believed that healthy eating is the best recipe for an abundant life and said that it is better to take an apple rather than taking a pill. In addition, Anazonwu-Bello (1976) said good nutrition promotes health and reduce chronic disease associated with diet and weight. He further noted that good nutrition prevents the risk of becoming malnourished. For instance, nutrition rich in carbohydrates, fats and protein and in the right balance helps the individual stay healthy at all times. Nevertheless, Ene-Obong (2001) also noted that nutrition provides the body with the nutrients it needs to perform all activities, from taking a breath to strenuous athletic activity.

According to Onimawo (2001), proper growth throughout the life stages depends upon proper nutrition and from birth to adulthood, nutrients fuel proper growth and function of all body cells, tissue, and systems. Without proper amounts of nutrients, growth and development are stunted.

Nutrition aids the healing process as noted by MacKay and Miller(2003), with all wounds, from a paper cut to major surgery, the body must heal itself. Healing, a critical function of a healthy body, is facilitated by adequate nutrition. That is, healing is facilitated through proper nutrition, while malnutrition inhibits and complicates this vital process. In a nutshell, nutrition promotes vitality and an overall sense of health and wellbeing by providing the body with energy and nutrients that fuels growth, healing, and all body systems and functions, (Mkpughe et al, 2001). They further stressed that good nutrition will also help to ward off the development of chronic disease. In addition, Nwokocha (2014) said malnutrition results when the body does not receive the required amounts of calories, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals necessary to keep the body and its systems in good functioning order.

Classifications of nutrients and their functions in man

The foods we eat contain nutrients and nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. Nutrients must be obtained from diet, since the human body does not synthesize them. Nutrients are used to produce energy, detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce (Barasi, 2007). Mkpughe et al. (2001) also opined that there are basically two types of nutrients namely: macronutrients and micronutrients. They explained that macronutrients are needed by the body in relatively large amounts (grams) while micronutrients are needed in very small amounts (milligrams or micrograms) of them to function properly. Ndungi (1982) also stated that there are also essential nutrients and non-essential nutrients. Elaborating, he said the essential nutrients are nutrients that cannot be produced by the body and they are vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, fats (essential fatty acids), water and oxygen. Onimawo (2001) argued that essential nutrients are unable to be synthesized internally (either at all or in sufficient quantities) and so must be consumed by the individual from its environment. He said, on the other hand, nonessential nutrients are those nutrients that can be made by the body; they may often also be absorbed from consumed food.

There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain overall health. These are:

• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Fats and oils
• Vitamins
• Minerals, and
• Water (Okaka et al., 2006).

1. Carbohydrates: Ene-obong (2001) said “carbohydrates are the main energy source for the brain. Without carbohydrates, the body could not function properly”. Examples and sources of carbohydrates are starchy fruit and tuber group. He also pointed out that the members of this group include yam, cocoyam, cassava, Sweet potato, Irish potato, plantain and breadfruit. According to Alade (2001), these food crops are usually cultivated and are the staples in the wetter, more humid regions of Nigeria. They contain large quantities of starch and are therefore fairly easily obtainable sources of food energy. He emphasized that the fleshy fruit/tuber group constitute the largest portion of the typical African diet.

Sources of carbohydrates:

Mkpughe et al. (2001) suggested the following:

• Sugars such as sugar, syrup fruit, honey, milk, sweets, fruit juices, jam, carrot, e.t.c.
• Starch such as cassava, yams, maize, wheat, potatoes, rice, bread, e.t.

Functions of carbohydrates in the human body

Functions of carbohydrates as stated by Mkpughe et al (2001) are:

• The chief function of carbohydrates is to provide the body with heat and energy.
• Those not immediately used (excess carbohydrates) are stored as glycogen or converted to fat and stored in the body to be mobilised for energy supply when needed.
• Cellulose (roughage) stimulates the muscular movement of the digestive tract which helps the bowel movement.
• They help to regulate fat and protein metabolism i.e. they act as a protective and detoxifying substance in the liver.
• Proteins: According to Amanda (2014), protein is the major structural component of cells and is responsible for the building and repair of body tissues. Protein according to her is broken down into amino acid, which are building blocks of protein. Nine of the 20 amino acids, known as essential amino acids, must be provided in the diet as they cannot be synthesized in the body. According to Alade (2001), the food groups where proteins can be gotten from are: (i) Milk Group,  (ii)  Meat Group

Alade opined that milk is the creamy whitish liquid produced from the mammary gland of animals. It is often described as nature nearly most perfect food. It is from this group that the human infant gets its first taste of a human diet. The milk group is made up of all dairy products including fresh milk, skimmed milk, condensed milk, powdered milk, local and foreign cheese, butter, yoghurt and ice cream. He also stressed that individuals with varying degrees of lactose intolerance have a choice of cheeses, butter milk, butter and yoghurt.

Furthermore, Alade (2001) said the Meat Group  includes such diverse food items as meats, poultry, eggs, fish, snails, shrimps, crabs and other sea foods; termites and other edible insects such as  caterpillar, locusts, crickets and grass-hoppers; legumes (pulses), seeds and nuts. And that although the nutritional contributions of each member of the group vary, they all provide valuable amounts of energy, proteins, iron and the B-complex vitamins. The proteins in the various cuts of meat do compare favorably well with the amounts of proteins available in poultry or fish.

Functions of protein in the human body

Onimawo (2001) highlighted the followings as functions of Protein in the human body:

• The principal function of protein is the building, replacing and repairing of body tissues.
• Excess protein is reserved for the provision of warmth (heat) and energy.
• Antibodies are formed from complex proteins.
• Proteins play an important role in the transport of water, inorganic ions, organic compounds and oxygen.
• Proteins are responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring
• Proteins serve as source of energy in the absence of carbohydrates and fats. However, this is not a beneficial function as protein is wasted.

3. Fats and oils

Onimawo (2001) says fats and oils are commonly called lipids which form another group of macronutrients required by the body. He went further to say that fats and oils, the common constituents of our foods, make up a sizeable percentage of food lipids. Fats are normally solid at roomi.e ambient temperature since they contain some of the unsaturated fatty acids. The lipids of importance to our health are fatty acids, fats, oils, phospholipids, lipoproteins and sterols. However, Amanda (2014) says fat as a nutrient is energy source that when consumed increases the absorptions of fat-soluble vitamins including Vitamins A, D, E
and K.Mottram (1979) classified Fats into animal and vegetable fats.

Animal Fats: These are obtained from meat, oil, fish, egg yolk, milk, butter, cream, cheese, e.t.c. (Mkpughe et al, 2001)

Vegetable Fats: These are obtained from groundnuts, margarine, palm oil, soya bean oil, nuts, olive oil, peanuts, coconuts, e.t.c. (Mkpughe et al, 2001)

Functions of fats and oils in the human body

According to Onimawo (2001), fats are essential for absorption of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. They are important as a chief source of reserve energy especially during starvation and that fats also play a role in the utilization of lactose. They increase palatability and satiety value of foods. Fats are important constituents of all cell membranes. Fats provide a protective padding to all vital organs from mechanical shock and keep them in place.

4. Vitamins

According to Onimawo (2001), vitamin such as Vitamin C is necessary for the synthesis of collagen, which provides structure to blood vessels, bone and ligaments. Rich sources of vitamins include citrus fruits, pepper, strawberries etc. Folate found in foods, helps to prevent birth defects. He stressed that Vitamin D helps to maintain calcium homeostasis. And it can be found in food sources or synthesized by the sun. Alade (2001) says vitamins are found in fruit/vegetable group of food. According to him, the term “vegetable” is used to include some fruits such as tomatoes and pumpkins), leaves such as spinach (green leaf) and cabbage, roots such as carrots and even stalks e.g. celery and so on. The contribution of this group of foods is the provision of nutritionally important quantities of water-soluble vitamins, especially folic acid and ascorbic acid, carotene and minerals.

Ojimelukwe et al. (2005) said the common fruits include mangoes, pawpaw, guava, coconuts, oranges, grape fruits, tangerines, bananas, pineapples, African pear, wild mangoes commonly called ‘bush mango’, pitanga cherry, local an imported apples, cashew fruit, avocado pear, cantaloupe and watermelon. While the vegetables include spinach, pumpkin leaves, bitter leaves, water leaves, collard greens, sweet potato leaves, cassava leaves, mushrooms, onions, okra, carrots, tomatoes, cabbage and lettuce.

Williams (1985) said there are water-soluble or fat-soluble vitamins and that the water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C and all the B vitamins, which include thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyroxidine, biotin, folate and cobalamin. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Vitamins are required to perform many functions in the body such as making red blood cells,  and playing a role in normal vision, nervous system function, and immune system function.He postulated that vitamin deficiencies can cause severe health problems. For example, a deficiency in niacin (a B vitamin essential for normal function of the nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract) causes a disease called pellagra, which was common in the early twentieth century in some parts of America. The common signs and symptoms of pellagra are known as the “4D’s—diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death.” Until scientists found out that better diet relieved the signs and symptoms of pellagra, many people with the disease ended up in insane asylums awaiting death. Other vitamins were also found to prevent certain disorders and diseases such as scurvy (vitamin C), night blindness (vitamin A), and rickets (vitamin D).

Functions of Vitamins in the human body

Onimawo (2001) highlighted the followings as functions of vitamins in the human body:

• It is important for growth and metabolism of all body cells.
• It is essential for the development of a healthy skin, bones and teeth.
• Vitamin C speeds up healing of wounds and fractured bones.
• They help to build up the resistance of the body against diseases.
• It protects the gum.
• Vitamin K is essential for normal blood clotting.

5. Minerals in the human body

Uddoh (1988) saw minerals as inorganic substances required by the body in varying amounts to carry out various body functions and they are usually present in small amounts but contribute to a large extent of the nutritive value of foods. Major minerals or macro minerals are required in large amounts exceeding 100mg/day while some minerals which are needed in extremely small quantities by the body are regarded as trace minerals. Trace elements are those whose requirement is a few milligrams or in micrograms per day.

However, Ene-Obong (2001) said the major mineral elements are calcium, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, chlorine and magnesium while iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, selenium, chromium, tin, zinc, nickel, florine and cobalt are required in much smaller quantities. He went further to state their sources which are: cow milk, green vegetables, eggs, fish, cheese, bananas, potatoes, tomatoes, etc.

General functions of minerals in the human body

Functions of minerals as suggested by Nwokocha (2014) are:

• Minerals form the structural components of bones, teeth, soft tissues, blood and muscles e.g. calcium, phosphorus and magnesium in bones.
• They regulate activity of nerves with regards to stimuli and contraction of muscles and maintain acid-base balance of the body fluids.
• They control water balance by means of osmotic pressure and permeability of cell membranes.
• They are constituents of vitamins e.g. thiamine contains sulphur and cyanocobalamin contains cobalt.
• They activates enzymes and regulates cellular oxidation
• They are necessary for the clotting of blood.

6. Water

Mkpughe et al. (2001) said water is an important nutrient; which is essential to all life. Water, they say, makes up approximately two-thirds of the body’s composition and every adult should consume 25 to 35 milliters of fluids per kilograms body weight or 2 to 3 liters per day. The bloods secretions, digestive juices and lymph are mainly composed of water.Okakaet al (2006) saw water as what helps to maintain homeostasis in the body and that which transports nutrients to cells. Sources of water ranges from liquids and drinks like milk tea, coffee, carbonated beverages, soups. Okaka et al. say practically all food contains water especially cucumber, lettuce, tomatoes, celery, oranges, bananas, apples, meats, eggs, etc.

Functions of water in the human body

According to Ndungi (1982), functions of Water in the human body are:

• It helps to regulate the body temperature.
• It helps in the transportation of substances from one part of the body to another and it also aids in the elimination of waste from the body.
• It also aids digestion by dissolving food, forming secretions of enzymes and assisting with absorption.

Nutrients deficiencies and nutritional disorder

1. Carbohydrate deficiency and excessive

Deficiency of carbohydrates as noted by Nwokocha (2014) is wasted muscles due to the fact that the body protein is used in energy production. There is also incomplete metabolism of fats and oils. According to her, carbohydrates deficiency is however rare. On the other hand, carbohydrates being very cheap,over consumption often led to dental problems (especially sugars) and obesity.

2. Protein deficiency

Ene-Obong (2001) explained that kwashiorkor is due to deficiency of protein and that this disease caused poor growth and development.

3. Vitamins deficiencies

As noted by Nwokocha (2014) deficiency in vitamins in children causes  retarded growth, it is also associated with night blindness and skin keratinization. Also lack of vitamin K causes haemorrhagic condition in which the blood does not clot readily after an injury or operation. Okaka et al (2006) “lack of vitamin results to scurvy and other vitamins deficiencies are loss of appetite, muscular weakness and so on”

4. Mineral deficiencies

Mineral deficiencies are rickets in children and osteomalacia and osteoporosis in adult as a result of lack of calcium while lack of iron results in anaemia, a condition typified by tiredness, loss of health and palpitation in which subnormal levels of haemoglobin are present in the blood. (Uddoh, 1988).

5. Water deficiencies

Nwokocha(2014) opined that excessive loss of water could take place due to diarrhoea, vomiting, fever, excessive perspiration, strenuous exercise and uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. It can also result in dehydration which causes slow metabolism.

Factors responsible for poor nutritional quality

Barasi (2007)said poor nutritional quality is due to personal choice, poverty, increasing food prices and easy access to non-nutritious foods. However, Ladau (2010) gave the followings as factors responsible for poor nutritional quality:

1. Poverty and lack of resources: According to her poverty and lack of resources are two causes of poor nutrition that contribute to the estimated 925 million people worldwide suffering the effects of malnutrition and its companion diseases, has been reported by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The criteria for defining malnutrition are inadequate intake of protein and micronutrients, or vitamins and minerals, which causes millions of children to die each year or to suffer lifelong physical and mental disabilities as the result of bad nutrition .
2. Limited access to large market: Ladau (2010) citing the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, said poor nutrition is among the many factors contributing to childhood obesity. She said, in some locations, access to supermarkets and large stores and markets is limited by distance, economic status and lack of transportation. Residents of many of these communities, although unable to obtain affordable, nutritious food, nonetheless have access to fast foods with their lower nutritional composition. This affects the daily nutritional needs of adults as well as children.
3. Age-related nutrition deficiency

Ladau also said aging is an additional cause of bad or poor nutrition. Older adults who live alone or those with reduced mobility may have difficulty shopping for and preparing food. As a natural part of aging, changes that occur in taste and smell might cause a decrease in appetite, which leads to nutritional deficiencies.

4. Social and environmental issues

Teenagers are notorious for bad/poor nutritional choices. Peer influence, easy access to fast food, addictive behaviours, and being raised by caregivers who lack knowledge of proper nutrition can cause children to grow up suffering the effects of poor eating habits. The cycle continues in college, where many students consume a nutritionally poor diet lacking sufficient amounts of fruits, vegetables and dairy products; skip meals; and over consume fast foods. Working adults often miss meals and choose the quick pick-me-up provided by nutritionally deficient snacks and junk food.

5. Medications

Some over-the-counter and prescription medications affect the appetite and interfere with nutrient absorption and metabolism. People taking these medications over a long period may suffer from the same nutritional deficiencies as those who eat nutritionally poor diets.

Relationship between nutrition and Student’s cognition

The brain can no longer be viewed as an autonomous organ, free from other metabolic processes in the body; instead, the brain needs to be seen as being affected by nutrition, the concentration of amino acids and choline (in the blood) which let the brain create and use many of its neurotransmitters such as serotonin, acetylcholine, dopamine and norepinephrine. Food consumption is vital to the brain being able to make the right amount of amino acids and choline (Growdon and Wurtman, 1982).In addition, Barasi (2007), said It is no surprise that what we eat directly influences the brain and that a connection was made between low iron levels in children with attention span; children with iron deficiency anaemia have shown to have short attention spans.

Erickson (2006) pointed out that good nutrition keeps the brain functioning correctly and that nutrients are important to brain development and function. He said proteins are found in foods such as meat, fish, milk and cheese and they are used to make most of the body’s tissues, including neurotransmitters, earlier identified as chemical messengers that carry information from brain cells to other brain cells. And that a lack of protein, also known as Protein Energy malnutrition (PEM), led to poor school performance by children and caused young children to be lethargic, withdrawn, and passive, all of which affect social and emotional development.

Carbohydrates are commonly found in grains, fruits and vegetables. Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose (sugar) which is where the brain gets its energy. Fluctuating levels of carbohydrates may cause dizziness and mental confusion, both of which can affect cognitive performance. Eating a carbohydrates-heavy meal can cause one to feel more calm and relaxed because of a brain chemical called serotonin and its effects on mood. Serotonin is created within the blood and this absorption is enhanced with carbohydrates (Mkpughe et al., 2001).

Erickson also noted that fat makes up more than 60% of the brain and acts as a messenger in partial control of aspects such as mood. Omega-3 fatty acids, he said are very important to the optimum performance of the brain and a lack of these fats can lead to depression, poor memory, low IQ, learning disabilities, dyslexia and ADD. He mentioned that important foods to consume to ensure an omega-3 fatty acid diet are certain fish and nuts.

Vitamins and minerals have been viewed by Alade (2001) as an important substance for the functioning of the brain. Most important are the vitamins A, C, E and B complex vitamins. He pointed out manganese and magnesium as two minerals essential for brain functioning, sodium, potassium and calcium play a role in message transmission and the thinking process. And that diets high in transfats and saturated fats negatively affection cognition. He said these transfats are found in common fast food and most junk foods which affects the brain synapses as well as many molecules that aid in learning and memory. On the other hand, a diet low in trans fats and high in Omega-3 fatty acids can strengthen synapses and provide cognitive benefits.  While Wolfe and Burkman (2000) explained by creating an equation:

Good nutrition + exercise = optimal learning

Okaka et al. (2006) said giving students the right food choices and helping them develop positive, healthy eating habits will support optimal functioning of the brain. They explained that, eating breakfast helps students to eliminate or reduce stomach pain, headache, muscle tension and fatigue, all which lead to an interference with learning and improved attention in late-morning performance tasks, retrieve information more quickly and accurately, make fewer errors in problem-solving activities and concentrate better and perform more complex tasks. They also emphasized on the negative impact of skipping a meal and that without adequate daily intake of nutrients from food, the body puts learning on a lower shelf below its need to sustain life-support functions. Therefore, in many cases, skipping a meal negatively affects the body and its learning functions.

Mkpughe et al. (2001) explained that what the individual eats for breakfast is very important and that a breakfast comprised of protein, fat and sugar will sustain the individual for only about two hours while a meal that include food from several food groups was the best for the individual who is expected to perform at his or her best in school, educationally and physically.

Influence of poor nutrition on academic performance

Ojimelukwe et al. (2005) stated poor nutrition poses the individual to the risk of illness and future chronic diseases and affects the immune system and it is obvious that a sick pupil will definitely  miss classes and this will affect his/her academic performance. Frances (2008) also noted that poor nutrition can lead to lack of concentration by pupils in the classroom. Wolfe and Burkman (2000) also noted that pupils or students’ academic performance are dependent upon their health, they said pupils with poor nutrition will perform poorly on tests and general classroom tasks.Ndungi (1982) viewed that when students go to school hungry or poorly nourished, their energy levels, memory, problem-solving skills, creativity, concentration and behaviour are all negatively impacted. That is, it makes them to loss attention in the class.

However, Ladau (2010) also highlighted the following relationship between poor nutrition and academic performance.

• Poor nutrition can lead to iron deficiency anaemia thereby resulting to shorter attention spans, irritability, fatigue and difficulty with concentration which can result to poo vocabulary, reading and other test scores.
• Poorly nourished children have been shown to have decreased attendance and academic performance as well as experience more health problems such as stomach ulcer, headache, heart attack, etc. compared to well-nourished children.

Also Ene-Obong (2001) said poor nutrition always lead to malnutrition and this is a major problem across the world and that deficiencies in some nutrients have been reported to cause diseases which could lead to impaired cognitive development.

Ways of improving nutrition quality

Human nutrition is complex. There is no authoritative instruction manual for the operation of the human body. Many food choices are socially conditioned and only dimly related to biological necessity.
Roday (2007) claimed “all of the nutrients interact with each other in unforeseen ways and that improvement of one’s personal nutrition is highly subjective. In addition, Okoronkwo (2004) suggested the following ways to improve nutritional quality:

• Changing of one’s eating habit
• Proper inspection of food handlers
• Personal Hygiene of food handler
• Good food storage system
• Health educating pupils, food handlers and the management.

1. Changing of one’s eating habit

Small changes he said make a big impact on our health. We have to start with one change and make a new one each week. Okoronkwo says “eliminating all drinks except water is a big change”. In support, Serena (2014) was of the view that soda, sweetened tea, designer coffee, energy drinks all contain more calories and fat than necessary. She went further to say that water, coffee and tea are fat-free choices, which are better for our health and that drinking a cup or two of coffee each day might reduce one’s risk of cancer and that anti-oxidants in most teas have a similar effect by combating free radicals, which contribute to the formation of cancer cells and that an average adult needs at least eight 8-ounce glasses of water daily to stay healthy. Okoronkwo further stressed that other small change to make include eliminating fast food, switching to low-sodium soups, taking home-made lunch to work and getting rid of your sweet candy intake.

2. Proper inspection of food handlers

According to Ifeadike, Ironkwe, Adogu and Nnebue (2014), opined that health inspectors should ensure that food handlers in schools receive appropriate supervision and instruction/training in food hygiene in line with their work activity and should enable them to handle food safely.  They should be inspected to ensure that they follow steps in food handling, cooking, and storage which are essential to prevent foodborne illness because food handling, preparation, and service practices are important factors in determining the safety of food. Conditions of cooking utensils, food storage systems (time and temperature), as well as food handlers’ knowledge and practices similarly affect food safety directly or indirectly

3. Food hygiene practices by food handlers

Ifeadike et al. (2014), stressed that food handler is a person with any job that requires him/her to handle unpackaged foods or beverages and be involved in preparing, manufacturing, serving, inspecting, or even packaging of food and beverage items. Hence, food handlers are required to use proper hygiene and sanitation methods when working with food. And that food hygiene rests directly on the state of personal hygiene and habits of the personnel working in the establishments. They said, in developing countries such as Nigeria, the normal atmospheric temperature is ideal for the multiplication of micro-organisms which cause food poisoning and that sometimes the food may look attractive and may be normal in smell and taste, and yet cause acute illness almost immediately after consumption or after a period of time due to toxins produced by bacteria. Thus proper handling of foods, utensils and dishes together with emphasis on the necessity for good personal hygiene are all of great importance.

In the view of Isara and Isah (2009), food hygiene is the set of basic principles employed in the systematic control of the environmental conditions during production, packaging, delivery/transportation, storage, processing, preparation, selling and serving of food in such a manner as to ensure that food is safe to consume and is of good keeping quality. However, food itself can pose a health threat, a problem that is serious in developing countries due to difficulties in securing optimal hygienic food handling practices. The public health objective of food hygiene and safety is the prevention of illness attributable to consumption of food and this is because of adequate supply of safe, wholesome and healthy food are essential for the health and well-being of humans (Okojie, Wagbatsoma and Ighoroge, 2005).

4. Good food storage system

Ifeadike et al. (2014) also stressed that proper storage of food items under appropriate conditions would preserve its’ quality and wholesomeness. Establishing good storage practices is essential to protect the food from possible contamination which affect the quality of food. On other hand, improper storage of food items allows bacteria to grow and thrive, causing food spoilage which leads to food wastage and potential food poisoning. In addition, food should be store in clean food grade storage containers to prevent contamination by foreign matter and food packaging materials should also be properly stored to prevent contamination by foreign matters. Food storage and packaging materials area should be situated away from toilets, dust, smoke, objectionable odours and other contaminants.  Furthermore, keep storage areas clean, not cluttered and pest-free.

5. 5. Improvement of socio-economic status

In the opinion of Isara and Isah (2009), good nutritional quality can only be realized and sustained when individuals within families and communities are food-secured. And that food security is having access by all people at all times to the food needed for a healthy life. Food security has three important dimensions: adequate availability of food supplies; assured access to sufficient food for all individuals; and its proper utilization to provide a proper and balanced diet. Therefore, in order for people to enjoy active, productive lives, it is mandatory that their basic needs are stable and varied food supply all year-round, for all family members; good health services; safe water supply and good sanitation; education; and adequate family care are met. Where these basic needs cannot be met by the majority, good health and nutritional well-being will remain elusive.

6. Personal hygiene of food handlers

According to Ifeadike et al. (2014), the followings are areas in which food handlers can maintain personal hygiene.

• Hand washing: Food handlers must wash their hands and exposed portions of the arms after touching bare human body parts, using the toilet room, handling animals, coughing/sneezing, using a handkerchief, using tobacco, eating/drinking, handling soiled equipment/utensils, as often as necessary to prevent cross-contamination, when switching between raw and ready-to-eat food, and after engaging in other activities that contaminate the hands. And food handlers should clean their hands and exposed portions of the arms in a properly equipped hand washing facility by vigorously rubbing together the surfaces of the lathered hands and arms and thoroughly rinsing with clean water and must pay particular attention to the areas underneath the fingernails and between the fingers.
• Hygiene: Food handlers should also maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness and shall conform to good hygienic practices during all working periods. Food handlers should have clean outer garments and wear effective hair restraints. Smoking, eating, and drinking are not allowed by food employees in the food preparation and service areas. All non-working unauthorized persons must be restricted from the food preparation and service areas.
• No bare hand contact with ready-to-eat food: Food handlers should not contact exposed ready-to-eat food with their barehands. Suitable utensils, such as deli paper, spatulas, tongs, dispensing equipment, or gloves should be used.
• Food and utensil storage and handling: Food should be protected from cross-contamination by separating raw animal foods from ready-to-eat foods during storage, preparation, holding, and display. Equipment and utensils (including knives, cutting boards, and food storage containers) must be thoroughly cleaned and sanitized after being used for raw animal foods and before being used for ready-to-eat food.
• Personal belongings: Personal clothing and belongings of food handlers must be stored at a designated place away from food, equipment, utensils, linens, and single service articles.

7. Health educating pupils, food handlers and the management: Health educating pupils, food handlers and management is very important in improving the nutrition of pupils. Many studies have shown that eating habits are established early in the life cycle and tend to carry through to adulthood (Isara and Isah, 2009). They further said that as a result, the food that children eat now will undoubtedly influence their state of health in later life. Making informed food choices is an integral part of a child’s normal growth and development. They also stressed that many studies have shown that healthy eating habits developed early in life will encourage healthy eating as an adult. And that the link between diet and chronic disease has long been recognised and, as a result, nutrition education has become a necessary and important part of personal development, health and physical education.

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