Sepkowitz (2001) defined HIV/AIDS as a disease of the
human immune system caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). During the
initial infection, a person may experience brief period of influenza like
illness. This is typically followed by a prolonged period without symptoms. As
illness progresses, it interferes more and more with the immune system making
the person much more likely to get infections, including opportunistic infections
and tumours that do not usually affect people who have working immune system.
human immune system caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). During the
initial infection, a person may experience brief period of influenza like
illness. This is typically followed by a prolonged period without symptoms. As
illness progresses, it interferes more and more with the immune system making
the person much more likely to get infections, including opportunistic infections
and tumours that do not usually affect people who have working immune system.
Mark (2012), defines HIV (human immunodeficiency
virus) as a virus that causes AIDS. This virus is passed from one person to
another through blood to blood contact and sexual contact.
virus) as a virus that causes AIDS. This virus is passed from one person to
another through blood to blood contact and sexual contact.
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome also called the
“slim” disease in some countries is a medical distribution of a combination of
illnesses which result from a specific weakness or destruction of the body’s
immune systems by strange virus known as HIV. HIV is in type 1 and 2. The HIV
weakens the immune system by entering the lymphocytes cell and finally destroys
the white blood cells (14 lymphocyte). As more and more lymphocytes are
destroyed, the body’s immune system, and the body become weak and inactive to
fight infections. Eventually, the person is likely to contact a number of
serious diseases which the body cannot resist or fight.
“slim” disease in some countries is a medical distribution of a combination of
illnesses which result from a specific weakness or destruction of the body’s
immune systems by strange virus known as HIV. HIV is in type 1 and 2. The HIV
weakens the immune system by entering the lymphocytes cell and finally destroys
the white blood cells (14 lymphocyte). As more and more lymphocytes are
destroyed, the body’s immune system, and the body become weak and inactive to
fight infections. Eventually, the person is likely to contact a number of
serious diseases which the body cannot resist or fight.
According to Almonti (2003), HIV is the cause of the
spectrum of disease known as HIV/AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus that primarily
infects components of the human immune system such as CD4+ T – cell
and microphages and dendritic cells. It indirectly destroys CD4+
T-cells.
spectrum of disease known as HIV/AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus that primarily
infects components of the human immune system such as CD4+ T – cell
and microphages and dendritic cells. It indirectly destroys CD4+
T-cells.
Farmer (2006), states that discrimination against
people living with HIV/AIDS is the experience of prejudice against people
living with HIV which fall within the preview of the law. Discrimination is one
manifestation of stigma. Stigmatization, attitudes and behaviour may fall under
the rubric of discrimination depending on the legislation of a particular
country. HIV/AIDS stigmatization exists round the world in a variety of form
including ostracism, rejection, discrimination and avoidance of HIV infected
people. Compulsory HIV testing without prior consent or protection of
confidentiality, violence against HIV infected individuals or people who are
perceived to be infected with HIV, the quarantine of HIV infected individuals
and some cases, the loss of property when one spouse dies.
people living with HIV/AIDS is the experience of prejudice against people
living with HIV which fall within the preview of the law. Discrimination is one
manifestation of stigma. Stigmatization, attitudes and behaviour may fall under
the rubric of discrimination depending on the legislation of a particular
country. HIV/AIDS stigmatization exists round the world in a variety of form
including ostracism, rejection, discrimination and avoidance of HIV infected
people. Compulsory HIV testing without prior consent or protection of
confidentiality, violence against HIV infected individuals or people who are
perceived to be infected with HIV, the quarantine of HIV infected individuals
and some cases, the loss of property when one spouse dies.
According to Pharries (2011), some form of serious
discrimination can include being expelled from school, being denied housing,
having to pay extra rent and job loss. Persons who have or are perceived to
have HIV/AIDS experience discrimination in various aspects of life. In the
United States, disability laws prohibit HIV/AIDS discrimination in housing,
employment, education and social services. Current research has found that
discrimination against people living with HIV is a contributing factor for
delayed initiation of HIV treatment. As many as 20 – 40% of Americans do not
begin a care regimen within the first 6 month after diagnosis.
discrimination can include being expelled from school, being denied housing,
having to pay extra rent and job loss. Persons who have or are perceived to
have HIV/AIDS experience discrimination in various aspects of life. In the
United States, disability laws prohibit HIV/AIDS discrimination in housing,
employment, education and social services. Current research has found that
discrimination against people living with HIV is a contributing factor for
delayed initiation of HIV treatment. As many as 20 – 40% of Americans do not
begin a care regimen within the first 6 month after diagnosis.
Mugarerd (2008) states that when an individual begins
treatment late in the progression of HIV (when CD4+ T cells counts
are below 500 cells /ul), they have 1.94 times the rest of mortality compared
to those whose treatment is initiated when CD4+ T cells are still
above 500 cells/ul).
treatment late in the progression of HIV (when CD4+ T cells counts
are below 500 cells /ul), they have 1.94 times the rest of mortality compared
to those whose treatment is initiated when CD4+ T cells are still
above 500 cells/ul).
Panel on Antiretroviral Guide For Adult and Adolescent
(2011), in a 2011 study published in AIDS patient care and STD (sample size
215) most of the barrier to care described involved stigma and shame.
(2011), in a 2011 study published in AIDS patient care and STD (sample size
215) most of the barrier to care described involved stigma and shame.
Pollin, Robbin, Estala, Carol and Maria (2011) said
that the most common reasons is not seeking treatment and “I did not want to
tell anyone I was HIV Positive”, I do not want to think about being HIV
positive” and “I was too embarrasses/ ashamed to go”. The presence and
perpetuation of HIV stigma prevents many who are able to obtain treatment from
feeling comfortable about addressing their health status.
that the most common reasons is not seeking treatment and “I did not want to
tell anyone I was HIV Positive”, I do not want to think about being HIV
positive” and “I was too embarrasses/ ashamed to go”. The presence and
perpetuation of HIV stigma prevents many who are able to obtain treatment from
feeling comfortable about addressing their health status.
UNAIDS (2006), states that HIV testing as a condition
for employment. Several state prohibit HIV/AIDS testing as a condition of
employment, while other permit HIV/AIDS testing when the employer can show a
legitimate reason for doing so. To establish a legitimate reason, there must be
some connection between HIV/AIDS and job performance or safety. This connection
exists when the job involves risk of transmitting the disease. An employer who
tests for HIV/AIDS without a legitimate reason or who does so merely because of
suspicion that the employee is a homosexual or drug user may be liable for an
invasion of privacy claim by the job applicant.
for employment. Several state prohibit HIV/AIDS testing as a condition of
employment, while other permit HIV/AIDS testing when the employer can show a
legitimate reason for doing so. To establish a legitimate reason, there must be
some connection between HIV/AIDS and job performance or safety. This connection
exists when the job involves risk of transmitting the disease. An employer who
tests for HIV/AIDS without a legitimate reason or who does so merely because of
suspicion that the employee is a homosexual or drug user may be liable for an
invasion of privacy claim by the job applicant.
Accommodation for HIV/AIDS employee, federal
legislation not only prohibits discrimination against handicapped persons, but
also requires employers to make reasonable effort to accommodate applicants and
employee where obstacles exist that would impede their employment
opportunities. In so far as an employee with HIV/AIDS is considered
handicapped, an employer must make reasonable accommodation for him or her. In
addition, if your company is covered by the Rehabilitation Act and an employee
has HIV/AIDS or develop it, you must make reasonable accommodation that permit
the employee to continue working in the position. Such accommodation can
include leave policies, flexible work schedules, reassignment to vacant
position and part time employment. The criteria used to determine whether an
employer is making responsible accommodation for an HIV/AIDS infected employee
include cost of accommodation, the size of the business and the nature of
employee’s wok.
legislation not only prohibits discrimination against handicapped persons, but
also requires employers to make reasonable effort to accommodate applicants and
employee where obstacles exist that would impede their employment
opportunities. In so far as an employee with HIV/AIDS is considered
handicapped, an employer must make reasonable accommodation for him or her. In
addition, if your company is covered by the Rehabilitation Act and an employee
has HIV/AIDS or develop it, you must make reasonable accommodation that permit
the employee to continue working in the position. Such accommodation can
include leave policies, flexible work schedules, reassignment to vacant
position and part time employment. The criteria used to determine whether an
employer is making responsible accommodation for an HIV/AIDS infected employee
include cost of accommodation, the size of the business and the nature of
employee’s wok.
Some asked if a partner in which one person is HIV
positive can conceive a baby without the uninfected partner becoming infected.
Many partner or couple in which one partner is HIV positive and the other
person is not want to have children and, fortunately with some careful
planning, it is usually possible to have a safe and successful pregnancy while
preventing HIV from passing to the HIV-negative partner (or to the baby). It is
very important to discuss your desire or intension for child bearing with your
health care provider before the woman becomes pregnant. Your health care
provider can help with decisions about how to conceive safely (if your provider
is not familiar with reproductive issues for HIV-positive persons, ask to see a
HIV specialist). That will help to ensure that the woman (if she is HIV
infected). There are HIV medications (ARVs) that are effective and appropriate
for pregnancy. Also her provider can advice her on other important ways to
protect her health before pregnancy. If you are a HIV positive woman and your
partner is HIV negative, there are “low tech” and “high tech” to the home
insemination using your partner’s semen and a needle syringe, timed with your
ovulation. By this method, your partner has no exposure to HIV. A more “high
tech” version of this approach is to use either intra-vaginal or intrauterine
insemination. For this, you would need the assistance of a fertility clinic.
Fancier approached are not really needed in this situation (unless you and your
partner have fertility problems), but you could seek advice and assistance at a
fertility clinic or a HIV clinic with experience in preventing mother to child
transmission of HIV. They may offer insemination service (these services are
legal in some states for couples with one HIV partner, but not in all states).
positive can conceive a baby without the uninfected partner becoming infected.
Many partner or couple in which one partner is HIV positive and the other
person is not want to have children and, fortunately with some careful
planning, it is usually possible to have a safe and successful pregnancy while
preventing HIV from passing to the HIV-negative partner (or to the baby). It is
very important to discuss your desire or intension for child bearing with your
health care provider before the woman becomes pregnant. Your health care
provider can help with decisions about how to conceive safely (if your provider
is not familiar with reproductive issues for HIV-positive persons, ask to see a
HIV specialist). That will help to ensure that the woman (if she is HIV
infected). There are HIV medications (ARVs) that are effective and appropriate
for pregnancy. Also her provider can advice her on other important ways to
protect her health before pregnancy. If you are a HIV positive woman and your
partner is HIV negative, there are “low tech” and “high tech” to the home
insemination using your partner’s semen and a needle syringe, timed with your
ovulation. By this method, your partner has no exposure to HIV. A more “high
tech” version of this approach is to use either intra-vaginal or intrauterine
insemination. For this, you would need the assistance of a fertility clinic.
Fancier approached are not really needed in this situation (unless you and your
partner have fertility problems), but you could seek advice and assistance at a
fertility clinic or a HIV clinic with experience in preventing mother to child
transmission of HIV. They may offer insemination service (these services are
legal in some states for couples with one HIV partner, but not in all states).
Unprotected sex during the time the woman is ovulating
(this reduces the number of times you have unprotected sex and thus lowers the
risk of HIV transmission), possibly with the HIV negative male partner taking
ARVs as prophylaxis to reduce the risk of infection with HIV – either before or
after unprotected sex. Ideally, the HIV positive woman is on anti HIV drugs and
has undetectable viral loads. This reduces the risk of infecting her partner.
(this reduces the number of times you have unprotected sex and thus lowers the
risk of HIV transmission), possibly with the HIV negative male partner taking
ARVs as prophylaxis to reduce the risk of infection with HIV – either before or
after unprotected sex. Ideally, the HIV positive woman is on anti HIV drugs and
has undetectable viral loads. This reduces the risk of infecting her partner.
Others asked if two HIV positive parents can have a
HIV negative child? Yes, they can, although a HIV infected mother can pass the
virus to her child during pregnancy, at birth or when breast feeding the
infant. Medical treatments of both the
mother and her infant can reduce the chances of that happening. HIV infection
in both mother and father does not appear to affect the likelihood of having a
HIV infected baby. HIV infected woman who needs antiretroviral therapy (ART) to
treat their own disease should start or continue to receive it during
pregnancy. Even if the woman is not being treated with ART for her own disease,
she should receive it during pregnancy to lower the risk of passing HIV to her
foetus, the goal is to lower the mother’s HIV viral loads (the concentration of
HIV in the blood) as much as possible to prevent infecting her foetus. The
lower the mother viral loads during pregnancy and child birth, the lower the
risk of infecting her baby. A baby’s chances of being born with HIV are less
than 2 to 100 when the mother has a viral load so low that it is undetectable.
After delivery, the infant should receive ART for 6 weeks. In addition, the
mother should avoid breast feeding her baby to prevent transmitting the virus
through her breast milk. For their own peace of mind, HIV infected couples
wanting to have children should receive counselling, if possible before making
a decision. During counselling sessions, they should ask about the likelihood
that they will survive long enough to parent effectively. They should learn how
to deal with possibility that their infant may became HIV infected and they
should learn how to cope if members of their family or community judge and
stigmatize their child.
HIV negative child? Yes, they can, although a HIV infected mother can pass the
virus to her child during pregnancy, at birth or when breast feeding the
infant. Medical treatments of both the
mother and her infant can reduce the chances of that happening. HIV infection
in both mother and father does not appear to affect the likelihood of having a
HIV infected baby. HIV infected woman who needs antiretroviral therapy (ART) to
treat their own disease should start or continue to receive it during
pregnancy. Even if the woman is not being treated with ART for her own disease,
she should receive it during pregnancy to lower the risk of passing HIV to her
foetus, the goal is to lower the mother’s HIV viral loads (the concentration of
HIV in the blood) as much as possible to prevent infecting her foetus. The
lower the mother viral loads during pregnancy and child birth, the lower the
risk of infecting her baby. A baby’s chances of being born with HIV are less
than 2 to 100 when the mother has a viral load so low that it is undetectable.
After delivery, the infant should receive ART for 6 weeks. In addition, the
mother should avoid breast feeding her baby to prevent transmitting the virus
through her breast milk. For their own peace of mind, HIV infected couples
wanting to have children should receive counselling, if possible before making
a decision. During counselling sessions, they should ask about the likelihood
that they will survive long enough to parent effectively. They should learn how
to deal with possibility that their infant may became HIV infected and they
should learn how to cope if members of their family or community judge and
stigmatize their child.
A positive mother cannot breast feed her baby because
the child could get HIV from the mother’s breast milk. If a mother is positive
the baby needs extra medicine. The baby should be given a drug called
Zidovudine (in syrup form) for 6 weeks to provide extra protection against HIV
infection. After that, until you know whether the baby is HIV positive, the
baby should be given an antibiotic called Trimthoprim/Sulphamethoxazole
(TMP/SMX) also known as Septra.
the child could get HIV from the mother’s breast milk. If a mother is positive
the baby needs extra medicine. The baby should be given a drug called
Zidovudine (in syrup form) for 6 weeks to provide extra protection against HIV
infection. After that, until you know whether the baby is HIV positive, the
baby should be given an antibiotic called Trimthoprim/Sulphamethoxazole
(TMP/SMX) also known as Septra.
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