Introduction
The issue of academic achievement of students cannot be neglected, since it is in line with development. Any country that shows records of poor academic achievement among students which necessitate low production of man power potential in the public service is in trouble. As a result of the forgoing, poor academic achievements among students in higher institutions had attracted attention of governments, schools, management and the general public over the years. Some scholars are of the view that the poor academic achievement of students in higher institution is traceable to the foundation laid in them when they were in the primary schools as to whether they were taught by sandwich teachers or full time N.C.E teachers (Akinwauli and Adeyanju, 2011).
The major issue is that there were records of low manpower potential in the public service as a result of poor academic achievement of students in the higher institution. This ugly situation had led to inauguration of several reforms by government such as the Jerome Udoji Commission report of 1974, the 1988 Civil Service reform and that of Allison Ayida in 1996, ostensibly to reinvigorate the Nigeria Public Service into becoming more result oriented (Akpomuvire 2003). Civil Servants were sent for re-training to produce manpower potentials in the public service. This led to the inclusion of the Civil Servants training expenses in budget allocation on yearly bases.
Regular master programme (mean programme run for students who do their academic work on regular basis) usually stipulate elongated learning periods and even sometimes do encroach, into the sandwich programme, either due to strike or other factors incorporated. The sandwich master programme (mean programme run for students who do their academic work during long vacation period) have to use the limited period to learn all the content areas in the various courses.
It is quite obvious that the tempo of instruction will be very high and may influence learning. This phenomenon is not usually appreciated by people. The learning periods to which students are subjected to have a long role to play in academic achievement of students.
Herman’s study Cited in Nwankwo (2005 P. 199) on learning new task revealed that “when we learn something new, often we forget much of it”. If much time is not devoted to increasing redundant attributes during instruction the tendency to forget learning material will increase. Learning needs high level of understanding to enable one carry over learning materials from one task to another. The theory of transposition cited in Nwankwo (2005 P240) aptly stated that “transfer of learning takes place when an individual is able to transpose an insight gained in one situation to another”. To gain insight learning materials under study must be understood and timing (mean the learning periods) cannot be neglected in academic achievement.
University of Port-Harcourt runs masters degree programme at both sandwich and regular basis in the faculty of education. The faculty is made up of six (6) departments! Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counseling, Curriculum studies and Educational Technology, Human Kinetics and Health Education, Educational Management, Education Foundation and Adult and Non-Formal Education. Apart from the department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, all other department in the faculty run master’s degree programme at both sandwich and regular basis.
The sandwich and regular masters students share common courses in the various departments. In terms of academic experience, the regular master students come for a distributed lecture for about 15 weeks, while the sandwich master students stay for about 2 months at a stretch for the same purpose. This usually necessitated increase in the tempo of instruction for the sandwich students to enable the instructor meet up with the stipulated learning period. Some people frown at the tempo of instruction in the sandwich programme as limited time is given for the sandwich students and for preparing for their assignments.
In some cases strike actions hinder the sandwich programme. The reason is that whenever the strike is resolved, students must use the limited time to complete the academic work for that session in order to avoid extended stay in the programme. Whether increase in the tempo of instruction for all the sandwich students will influence their academic achievement is yet to be fully ascertained.
Amadi (1999) evaluated the Bachelor of Education sandwich programme in Rivers State. He found out that sandwich programme concerns “education of people who unlike children are not freely available, have little time for study, are engaged in physical and exhausting labour, are burdened by family cares and often by financial difficulties. “These findings lend support to people view over the sandwich master programme. It is supposed that differences in academic experience of both sandwich and regular post graduate students may have impacted positively or negatively on their academic achievement.
Academic achievement (synonymously used with the performance in this study) is the success record of students in examination. Some instrument used for measuring students’ academic achievement includes test, questionnaire and interview. During measurement, numerals are attached to information provided by the students. These numerals usually indicate performance. It is important to note that performance of students cannot be the same in any given course of study. One may ask a modest question, does difference in programme in the higher institution for various courses influence students academic achievements?
Much has been written on student’s academic achievement; Woodley (1984) analyzed data from the universities statistical record on the 1972, 1973 and 1974 intakes of all UK universities to test the relationship between age, progress and performance in higher education. He found that mature students (age 21+) were slightly less likely to complete their course successfully than younger students (below age 21). Women were more like to graduate than men. There were significant differences in terms of subject area, particularly in Art and Social Sciences, were more mature students withdraw, for non-academic reasons. In a similar dimension, Anne (2003) investigated the learning needs of mature students (age 21+) and younger students (below age 21) at University College of London (UCL) and fund out that the younger students made good progress that the mature students.
However, Lisa and Kim (2002) study on the learning needs of mature students (below age 21) showed that the mature students perform better than the younger students in most of the courses at University College of London.
In different dimension, Oku (2004) investigated the performance of pre-degree and University Matriculation (U.M.E) students in chemistry education degree programme and found out that there is no significant difference in the performance of the two groups of students who gained admission through different modes. In quest for comparison of two groups of students, Oku (2008) investigated the academic achievements of sandwich and regular masters students and found out that there is no significant difference in academic achievement in most of the courses commonly offered by the sandwich and the regular masters students.
However, there were few cases where significant difference exists in favour of the sandwich masters students while in other cases in favour of the regular masters students. Very recently, Akinwomi and Adeyanju (2011) came out with a case study on post-graduate training job performance of sandwich and full time N.C.E teachers as to whether they influence performance of primary school pupils. Result showed that there were no significant difference in sandwich and full time N.C.E teacher’s performance variables, lesson preparation, teaching methods and knowledge of professional practice and ethnics.
Taking a critical look at the above studies, it is obvious that Woodley Anne and Lisa and Kim studies were based on comparing performance of younger students and mature students. Academic achievement among mature students was not treated. Also, Oku (2004) and Akimummi and Adeyenju studies centred on under-graduate students, sandwich and full time teachers, the former comparing two modes of entry into a programme in relation to performance while the latter compared the efficiency of sandwich and full time N.C.E teachers in teaching primary school pupils. Academic achievement of sandwich and regular post graduate students was not treated.
However, Oku (2008) compared academic achievement of sandwich and regular masters students, but his study do not cover students who were admitted up to 2010/2011 academic session. Effort to review literatures that compare academic achievement of sandwich and regular masters students admitted as from 2006/2007 to 2010/2011 academic session did not yield any positive results.
Therefore, it is against this background that the researcher conceived the idea to compare academic achievement of sandwich and regular masters students admitted in the 2006/2007 to 2010/2011 academic session.
The concept of academic achievement
According to Oku (2008), Academic achievement is the success record of students in examination. Some instrument used for measuring students academic achievement include – test, questionnaire and interview. In a similar vein, Wikipedia encyclopedia defined academic achievement as the outcome of education, the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals.
It is quite evidence that performance of students are usually not the same in any given course of study. Apart from intelligence of students which is the major determinant of students academic achievement, other variables such as self concept, study habit, locus of control, attitude to schooling and time allocated to study have been reviewed by Kpolovie (1998), found out that, internal locus of control correlates positively with students academic achievement.
In quest to solve the problem of poor academic achievement among students, several researchers such as Kpolovie, Oku, have reviewed and discovered certain variables that have direct influence on students academic achievement, some of which are outlined above. It is therefore supposed that those variables that shows positive relationship with students academic achievement will be strengthened while others which associates negatively with academic achievement will be discouraged to have influence on individuals as far as academic achievement is concern.
The present researcher is considering whether time allocated to study in the sandwich and regular programme in institutions of higher learning is something to worry about when relating it with student’s academic achievement.
The concept of regular programme in institution of higher learning
The regular programme is the full time programme organized for students in tertiary institution. Students are engaged with academic work in week days, that is from Monday to Friday for a specified period of time after which they do their assignment.
According to Oku (2008) the regular students are engaged in a distributed lectures for a period of about 15 weeks and do their assignments. This length of time encouraged over learning to be possible. Nwankwo (2005 P. 199) on learning new task revealed that “when we learn something new often we forget much of it”. Oku (2008) revealed that if much time is devoted to learning the tendency to recall learning materials will increase.
This implies that regular students are expected to perform very high academically if other factors such as study habit, attitude to schooling and locus of control are kept constant. The question is: does the regular students make meaningful use of the time allocated for them to learn? Faden and Stell (2012) noted that laziness and procrastination as far as studying is concerned is predominant and common among students in institutions of higher learning. Whether this attitude will influence their academic achievement is yet to be determined.
The concept of sandwich programme in institution of higher learning
The sandwich programme is usually run for students during long vacation. The working class who are willing to upgrade themselves and are not able to cope with the regular programme, fit exactly into the sandwich programme. According to Oku (2008) the sandwich students are engaged in a mass lectures for a period of about 9 weeks after which they do their assignment.
Amadi (1990 P. 44) evaluating the bachelor of education sandwich programme in Rivers State, revealed that the sandwich programme concern “education of people who unlike, children are not freely available have little time for study, are engaged in physical and exhausting labour, are burdened by family cares and often by financial difficulties”. Hermans study cited in Nwankwo (2005) clearly stated that enough time is required in learning new talk. Whether time allocated for the sandwich students during instruction is enough to memorize learnt materials is yet to be determined. All these we shall find out in this study by comparing the academic achievement of the sandwich and regular masters students in the courses commonly offered by them.
Theoretical framework
Human learning as information processing theory is loosely modeled in the way in which computer process information. The following are some of the learning theories.
Cognitive field theory:
The cognitive field theory of learning was first developed and expounded by three great Germany Psychologists namely Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. The theory holds that human being learn when he is able to strike at the gestalt. Gestalt is a German word which means whole form, pattern, shape or configuration. The proponents of this theory are also called gestalt psychologists. They are of the view that people learn when they are able to understand the whole forms, whole pattern or whole nature of the problem or situation and not just the parts only. To strike at the gestalt one is engaged in several activities such as perceiving the whole patterns or forms of the problem or stimulus the way it really exist, think and reason about it, evolve relationship between the various parts of the problem, rearrange or restructure the pattern and by so doing, insight (which is automatic emergence of the correct clues to the solution of the problem) is developed. With the insight developed the problem is well understood and solved accordingly. On the whole learning eventually takes place.
It is important to note that all the mental activities engaged in the process of striking at the gestalt and developing insight is possible if adequate and appropriate time is accorded to the learner.
Theory of performance by Don Elger
Don Elger developed this theory and relates six (6) foundational concepts to form a frame work that can be used to explain performance as well as performance improvement.
According to him, to perform is to produce valued results. A performer can be an individual or group of people engaging in collaborative efforts. Developing performance is a major journey and the level of performance describes location in the journey. Don Elger supposed that current level of performers depends holistically on six (6) components context level of knowledge, level of skills, level of identity, personal factors, and fixed factors.
In this theory three terms are proposed for effective performance. These involve a performance mindset, immersion in an enriching environment and engagement in reflective practice.
(a) Performers mindset:
Performers mindset includes actions that engaged positive emotions; example includes setting challenging goals allowing failure as a natural part of attaining high performance and providing conditions in which amount of safety.
(b) Immersion:
Immersion in a physical social and intellectual environment can elevate performance and stimulate personal as well as professional development. Element include social, interactions, disciplinary knowledge active learning emotion (both positive and negative) and spiritual alignment.
(c) Reflective practice:
Reflective Practice involves actions that help people pay attention to and learn from experience. Examples include observing the present level of performance noting accomplishment, analyzing strength and areas for improvement analyzing and improving level of knowledge.
Theory of transposition:
Is a theory of transfer of learning which share a similar view with the cognitive field theory. Max Wertheimer is one of the gestalt psychologists who proposed this theory. So this also centered on striking at the gestalt to enable an individual carry over knowledge gained in one situation, to another new situation.
According to this theory, transfer of learning takes place when an individual is able to transpose an insight gained in one situation to another.
Transposing an insight show that the prior teaching and learning process was understood by the learner and deeply in grained hence encouraged carryover of experience when the need arises. All these mental activities needed during teaching learning process can only be possible if adequate time is given.
This researcher will anchor the topic under investigation on the cognitive field theory and theory of transportation. This is because the theories stress encouraging on individual in a mental effort which leads to developing insight. Further still this process usually requires adequate time for proper understanding to take place as regards to striking at the gestalt is concern.
Empirical review
Time as a factor in determining students academic achievements.
The issue of time factor as to whether is directly related to students academic achievement had being of great concern over the years. Some people are of the view that the part time students have less time to study and this may contribute to their poor academic achievements. Amadi (1999) lend support to this claims that the sandwich students have limited time to study. On the contrary, some scholars are of the view that even the regular students who have enough time to study do relax and procrastinate, hence postponed materials to be learned.
As a result of this, intensively learning, may not usually be possible. This claim was supported by Faden and Stell (2012) that laziness and procrastination as far as studying is concerned is predominant and common among regular students in institution of higher learning.
Sarath and Gail (2006) carryout a study on academic performance of college students. Influence of time spent studying and working in Arkansus State University, Jonesboro Arkansus. The sample consisted of 276419 students at 413 of the nation’s 4 year college and University (over one-fourth of entering freshmen in the limited states). Using Pearson product moment correlations and regression analysis, no significant relationship was found between the time spent studying outside of class and time spent working on academic achievement. In their finding they noted that the three major factors that is time spent studying, motivation and when combine will have direct influence on students academic achievement.
One mode of school learning formulated by Caroll as cited in Oku (2008) that has been the bases for looking at individual rates of learning is based on the analysis of instructional learning task and time, it takes to master it. The basic assumption in this model is that, time is the central variable in school learning and students differ in the amount of time they need to master a given learning task to some set criterion. The emphasis in this model is that, the degree of learning is s function of two factors which are amount of time actually spent in learning and the amount of time needed.
Klernsmith and Kaphan as cited in Oku (2008) noted that “the operational definition of forgetting or retention is inextricably tied to the passage of time; time is the defining independent variable”. In their study, two groups of students were taught the same administrative course content at different length of times. The control group studied the course in two weeks and was given retention test immediately after learning.
The experimental group that did the course within two months and had the retention test a week later. Both groups have equal taught hours by the persons. Result showed no significant difference in the recall of the learning materials between the two groups. Klernsmith and Kaphan therefore concluded that though people speak of studying retention or forgetting whenever the interval between two trials is increase beyond that used to separate the earlier trials. We should not be led to conclude that by merely lengthening the time between two trials we are going to change anything very fundamental about the situation.
One may ask a modest question, how well do the regular students make well used of the plenty of time available to them? They may probably assume that they have a lot of time thus, relax and postponed the material to be learned. On the other hand, the sandwich students may probably know that they have a shorter period to learn and therefore may likely make meaningful use of the time available to them. Whether these situations will affect their academic achievement is yet to be ascertained.
Comparative analysis of students’ academic achievement in full-time and part-time studied.
Oku (2008) compared academic achievement of sandwich and regular masters students of the University of Port Harcourt. Using a purposive sampling technique, a sample of 288 sandwich and 485 regular masters students were drawn by the researcher from three departments in the faculty of education. These departments include: Educational psychology-guidance and counseling, curriculum studies and educational technology, and educational management. Using independent t-test analysis, no significant differences were found between the two groups of students in most of the courses commonly offered by them in the three departments.
However, there were significant differences in academic achievement in four courses three in favour of the sandwich masters students. Oku and the present researcher used regular and sandwich masters students, the same techniques for data analysis, except that this present research is more resent. Therefore, findings will add to existing literature.
In a related study, Okwara (1997) compared academic achievement of regular and post N.C.E sandwich students of University of Port-Harcourt. Using simple random sampling, a sample of 155 N.C.E sandwich students and 150 regular B.E.D students were drawn by the researcher from four departments in the faculty of education. These departments include: Educational Psychology Guidance and Counseling Educational Foundation, Educational Management and Planning, Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology. Using independent t-test analysis, no significant differences were found between the two groups of students across the four departments. However, there were significant differences in few individual courses commonly offered by them in favour of the regular students. Okwara used regular B.E.D students and post N.C.E sandwich students who had received bachelor degree, the present researcher used regular and sandwich masters students who had received masters degree, similar analysis technique of independent t-test was also used in this present study.
Akinwomie and Adeyanju (2011) focused attention on primary school education which is bedrock and foundation of academic achievement. They carried out a study on post-training job performance of sandwich and full time National Certificate in Ogun State, Nigeria to see whether any one may be the major causes of primary school pupil’s poor performance in examination. Using a multi-stage technique, a sample of 1250 teachers was drawn from 300 public primary schools in Ogun State. T-test analysis show no significant differences in sandwich and full-time N.C.E graduate job performance variable, lesson preparation teaching methods, knowledge of professional practice and ethics. Also in the multiple regression analysis, lesson preparation, teaching methods and knowledge of professional practice and ethics correlate positively with the productivity of sandwich and full-time graduates. While Akinwomie and Adeyanju compared job performance of sandwich and full-time N.C.E teachers, the present researcher compared academic achievement or regular and sandwich masters students. A similar analysis technique of independent t-test was also used in this present study. Sharp and Sosdian cited in Okwara (1997 compared the academic achievement of non traditional (part time and traditional western (full-time) education students during and after their degree programme. Degree obtained through the non-traditional education were termed “internal”. The researcher drew a sample of 1500 graduates from 21 institutions with internal and external degree programmes and compared their performance. There was no significant difference in their academic achievement both during and after their programmes. While Sharp and Sosdian compared academic achievement of students both during and after their programme, the present research compared academic achievement of the students who had received Master’s degree.
Urevbru as cited in Okwara (1997) students participation in various forms of evening classes for formal school qualification in North Central and North Western States found that students who attended formal school for five years and those who had not but rather went for evening classes for a few months are not differ statistically in their academic achievement.
The above finding is in concordance with that of Funke (1992) that full-time and part-time students in a degree programme in the University of Lagos do not differ significantly in terms of academic achievement. The researcher attributes similarly to the use of the same insufficient library facilities accommodation, lack of suitable lecture halls and the like by both the full-time and part-time students. While Funke used students who had received bachelor’s degree, the present researcher used students who had received master’s degree.
Brush, Goodrich, Techsoonia and Elseman as cited in Okwara (1997 revealed that apart from a situation with learning materials of different meaningfulness two sets of students in different programmes of a University and who offered the same courses do not differ statistically in their academic achievement.
In the same vein, Hoffman and Pool (1979) in their study found out that teachers improvement programme who participate in teachers improvement programme either as full-time or part-times or part-timers did not differ statistically in their academic achievement.
Watts (1982) made a similar argument in his contribution to controversy over the merits of field-base. (Part-time) teachers education, he found out that field-based and campus-based students and did not differs significantly with respect to their academic achievement.
The above results were not supported by the finding of Mapp as cited in Okwara (1997). He found out that full-time students in cognitive intellectual and psychomotor development.
In a similar vein Annual and Annual as cited in Okwara (1987) revealed that the academic achievement of correspondence learners is statistically lower than that of students who passed through regular programmes.
Influence of age on academic achievement:
Salamonson and Andrew (2006) carried out a study on academic achievement in nursing students׃ influence of part-time employment age and ethnicity. A quantitative survey design was used to collect data from a regional University in Australia over a 2 years period from 2001 – 2002, a sample of 267 nursing students were included in the study. They found out that age was positively related to academic achievement in both pathophysiology and nursing practice. This implies that as students become more matured in terms of age, there is more tendency to improve on academic achievement in both pathophysiology and nursing practice. While Salamonson and Andrew used nursing students, this present researcher used students who had received master’s degree.
Lafferty cited in Oku (2008) investigated the influence of age predictability of graduate record examination aptitude test for successful graduate student. The sample consisted of 393 students who had received master’s degree, during 1966 and 1967 in 18 different areas of specification from South Carolina University, Columbia. She found out the oldest group had lowest GRE (graduate record examination) scores, showed a tendency to earn slightly lower quantitative ability scores than younger students, but earn the highest grades GPRS (grade point ratios). For education students, GPE total scores were found to predict graduates GPRS better for those 30 years of age and above than for those in their twenties. Age has little correlation with GPE scores for the men, but is was associated with both GPE’s scores and GPEs for the women. Although this study is similar to the present study in terms of the subjects used, however the present study is an indigenous one and also more recent.
Woodley (1984) did a related study on the older the better. A study of mature students in British Universities. The University statistical record data on the 1972, 1973 and 1974 intakes of all UK Universities was analyzed by the researcher to test the relationship between age, progress and performance in higher education. His findings revealed that mature students (age 21) were slightly less likely to complete their courses successfully than younger students (under age 21 group) “there were significant difference in terms of subjects area particularly in Arts and Social Science where more mature students withdrew for non-academic reason”. According to the researcher the relationship between age and performance is clearly not a simple linear one. It varies with sex, subject studied and entry qualification. Woodley therefore advocated that Universities should have few qualms about increasing their mature students in take. While Woodley used undergraduate in foreign Universities, this present study used students who had received master’s degree on indigenous University.
Lisa and Kim (2002) compared academic achievement of mature and younger students at UCL. They collected data from the registry containing 2000 information on the degree results of all under-graduate students from 1996 to 2000. The researcher reported that mature students are more likely to gain a good degree than the younger students. The finding is more prevalent within the 25 age group and particular the over 40 age group… mature students are significantly more likely to gain a good degree in arts and social science. This is true particularly of the 25 – 40 and 40+ age group with for example 19.8% mature students from the 25 – 40 age group, getting a first in the social and historical sciences. Faculty compared with 11.0% of traditional entry students (younger students). The picture is not a straight forward one, However, as mature students in the 21 – 24 age group are less likely to gain a good degree and are more likely to get a third class degree. In other faculties, there is no significant difference between the degree results of mature students and traditional entry age students. In the faculty of life science, mature students perform slightly less well than traditional age entry students and are more likely to be represented in the lower degree categories 9.3% of the 25 – 40 age group compared with 4.8%, although the 25 – 40 age group also achieve a higher average percentage of first class degree in this faculty.
Trueman and Hartley (1996) and Osborne Leopold and Ferrie (1997) findings on mature students performing significantly better than the younger students in the faculty of Art and Social Science also lend support to some of the report of Lisa and Kim (2002).
On the contrary, Anne (2008) study of the learning needs of mature and part-time students at UCL did not support the findings of Lisa and Kin (2002). The researcher revealed that the younger students made good grades than the mature students. For students up to 22 years old, 6 out of 7 (86%) made good progress only 1 out of 9 (11%) students aged 23+ made good progress. Lisa and Kim argued that the sample size used in the study was small and thus highly subjected to error.
Richardson (1994) responding to the perception than older students lack the basic skills needed to study effectively because they do not have recent experience of studying carried out a study on the mature students in higher education. A literature survey on approaches to studying. He found no difference between mature and non-mature students on a research methods course in terms of academic performance and academic persistence or perseverance.
Richardson was of the view that mature students do not lack basic study skills since they are usually motivated by intrinsic goals, whereas younger students have a surface approach to learning. The impact of mature students prior life experience promotes a deep approach towards studying.
Influence of gender on academic achievement:
Much has been written about the disadvantaged position of the girl child in Africa tradition (Jike, 1978, 1988 and 2001). The corollary deprivation and by extension, marginalization of the African woman has been substantiated rather than elaborately in the work of Otite and Ogionwo (1985). The African woman was never perceived traditionally to be on an equal footing with male counterpart. The pervasive system of patriarchy placed the man, on an enviable and revered pedestal and gave him ample, latitude and social leverage to lord it over African woman. The African patriarchal system has perpetually relegated women to a position of subservience.
This patriarchally-induced need gender dichotomies has been transposed to the education system (Jike and Buadi, 2003). Nosike (1996, P. 5)has noted that “social custom often account for the popular belief that girls do not need education since they will marry and raise children rather than work at a job outside the home where educational qualification are required”. This has made most girls to opt for expressive job like cooking, cleaning and child nurturing in tandem with societal perception of women’s role (Alutu 2000 and Okoro 1996). Some researchers believe that boys are better endowed to cope with science subjects than girls. Fennema and Sherma (1977) attempted some biological explanations. To them difference in academic achievement are ascribable to difference in spatial ability of males and females. Spatial abilities are said to result from innate differences in the degree which males and females use the right and left hemisphere of the brain for spatial reasoning. Spatial abilities are related to the development of the right hemisphere of the brain and the males are known to use the right hemisphere more than the left while the females use the left more.
Studies have been carried out in the sciences to investigate whether gender really counts in academic achievement. (Ibeme 1975, Obioma 1982, Ezeife 1990, Mordi 1992, Dieniye and Mamuni 1993 and Shaibu and Mari 1997). In their findings revealed that boys performs better than girls in the sciences. Contrary to the above findings, Nwachukwu 1982 and Inomiesa 1989 in their studies also in the sciences found that gender does not really counts in academic achievements. Simply put, there is no significant difference between the performance of male and female students in the sciences.
In Social Studies, influence of gender on academic achievement seem not to be given a straight forward picture, while Ireyefoju (1998) reported boys superiority, Osakwe (1991) reported the contrary, other studies such as Umeoduaga (1995) reported female superiority.
Akpochafo (2003) carried out a study on gender related difference and academic achievement in junior secondary school social studies in Delta State. The researcher drew a sample of 120 boys, 120 girls from junior secondary school in two local government areas. Using analysis of convariance (Ancova) technique, he found out that boys perform better than girls in social studies lending support to the findings of Ireyefoju (1998). While Akpochafo used students from the junior secondary schools, the present study used students who had received masters degree.
Lisa and Kim (2002) compared academic achievement of male and female students at University College of London (UCL). The researcher used the class of degree awarded to the two groups of students to compare their performance in percentage. The degree includes; first degree, good degree and third degree.
Lisa and Kim (2002) they found out that the percentage of first was similar for both males and females, but the percentage of good degree over all was slightly higher for females at 70.8% compared to 58.7% for males. Male students had a much higher chance of gaining a third at 9.2% compared to 3.4% for female.
Table 1 in appendix shows the difference within faculties and those which show a difference between male and female. Life science (LIF), mathematics and physical science (MAP) and social and historical sciences (SHS) all show a much larger percentage of females getting “good” degree.
Lisa and Kim therefore concluded that in terms of the data overall however, there is a consistent pattern over time of female students gaining more “good” degrees, and male students gaining “lower” degrees particularly third. The number gaining first class degrees varies overtime with the female students being more successful in some years and males more successful in other. The overall pattern therefore is for female students on the average to perform better than male students and this pattern is consistent across all five year from 1996 to 2000.
While Lisa and Kim used graduate students in a foreign base university, the present researcher used students who had received master’s degree.
Chapman cited in Lisa and Kim (2002) finding is in concordance with the above findings. He revealed that the males have more tendency of achieving first and third degree while the females tends to be awarded more “good” degrees overall with their number concerned in upper second category.
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