Introduction
The term “Urban” can be referred to as settlement of a population size based on one or more criteria including population size, population density and economic factors, such as the proportion of the labour force engaged in non agricultural activities, the administrative political states of a locality, such as national, provincial or district capitals. This can only be achieved through rural to urban migration for better and reliable healthy environment to work and line in (Park, 2006). Urban areas are hot spot that drive environmental change at multiple scales. Just as land change occurs as cities are built and must support the demand of urban populations, cities (Grimm, 2008). Within Global Environmental Change (GEC) research, cities are now considered to be important site of origin for numerous environmental issues including the green house effect, air and water pollution (Li, 2008).
Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale whereby predominantly urban culture. Urbanization is the physical growth of urban area as a result of rural migration and even sub-urban concentration into cities particularly the large ones. The United Nations projected that half of the world’s population would be living in urban area by 2050 it is predicted that 64.1% and 85.9% of developed world respectively will be urbanizing (United States Environmental Protections Agency, 2007).
Urbanization is not merely the increase in number of urban residents or expanding of urban areas, but more importantly, it’s about a complete change in terms of industrial structures, employment, and living standard.
Conceptual framework
Urbanization is the population shift from rural to urban setting, “the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas” and the ways in which each society adapts to the change (Barney, 2015).
The growth in urban areas comes from both the increase in migration to cities and the fertility of urban populations. Much of urban migration is driven by rural area offer. Urban advantage includes greater opportunity to receive education, health care and services such as entertainment.
In 1800, only about 2 percent of the world’s population lived in urban area. Until in century ago, urban area was one of the unhealthiest places for the people to live. The increased density of populations in urban area led to quaintly death rate in urban areas historically was higher than in rural area. The way urban area maintained their existence until recently was by the continual immigration of rural people (Milton, 2008).
Causes of Urbanization
Urbanization occurs as individuals, government and commercial entities move from one geographical location to another in order to source for a better and more healthful living. In cities, permits the advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and market place competition.
However, the advantage of urbanization are weighed against alienation issues, stress, increased daily costs and negative social aspect that result from mass marginalization (Park, 2007).
Cities are known to be place where money service and wealth are centralized. Many rural inhabitants come to cities for reasons of seeking further and social mobility (Bora, 2012).
Businesses which provide jobs and exchange capital are more concentrated in urban area. Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the part or banking system that foreign money flows into a country, commonly located in cities.
Meanwhile, economic opportunity is one of the reason people move into cities though they don’t go to fully explain why urbanization rate have exploded only recently in places like Warri and Benin (Barbara & Boyle, 2012).
According to Li (2009), there are two major causes of Urbanization which are:
- Rural flight
- Education
Rural flight
Rural flight is a contributing factor to urbanization. In rural areas often on small family farm or collective farm in village, it has traditionally been difficult to access manufactured goods through over-all quality of life is very subjective and may certainly surpass that of the city (Sridhan, 2007).
Milton (2008) stated that cities offer a large variety of services such as specialist services that are not found in rural areas. Supporting the provision of this service requires workers, resulting in more numerous and varied job opportunity. Elderly individuals may be forced to move to cities where there are doctors and hospitals that can carter for their health needs.
Education
Varied and high quality educational opportunity is another factor in urban migrations as well as the opportunity to join, develop and seek out social community.
Because of the high standard of education in cities parents are forced to send their children to cities to acquire quality education.
In most towns and village, parents who are well to do, don’t allow their children to stay in such environment they are effects to child negatively, while on the other hand, those who could send their children to school in cities engage them in doing one major job or the other to source their daily living. This and many more account for the increase or rather cause of urbanization.
Types of urbanization
Paine (2000) classified urbanization into three (3) basic groups. They include:
- Re- urbanization
- Sub- urbanization
- Counter- urbanization
Re- Urbanization
Re–urbanization is the growth and development that help increase the number of people living and working within urban area. Re-urbanization can generate a number of social environment and economic benefit which include.
- Create tax revenue resulting from new development.
- Create housing choice and improve affordability
- It improves public health as a result of more active life styles.
- It improves quantity of life
Sub-urbanization
Sub-urbanization is the growth on the fringe of cities, it is one of the many cause of the increase in urban sprawl. Many residential of metropolitan regions work with central urban area and choose to in solitude.
Sub-urbanization involves the tendency for the average residential household to locate at an increasing distance from the city and as result housing and other infrastructure development have occurred in predominantly agricultural areas. It could also lead to in real estate development cost in that for residential properties sub-urbanization allows home price to decrease, so people can drive until they can find an area in which they can afford to buy a home. However these homes may lack certain things such as parks and access to public transport (Wikipedia, 2002).
Counter urbanization
Counter urbanization is a demographic and social process whereby people move from urban area to rural area beyond the outer suburbs. The movement was stimulated by negative externalities of the city such as congestion, high price pollution and aided by the increasing mobility of the population (Paine, 2000).
Economic effect of urbanization
As urban areas develop its economic effect could include a dramatic increase and change in the cost, often pricing the local working class out of the market, including such functionaries as employees of the local metropolis (Park, 2008).
Urban development in this generation is a gigantic process of class segregation, which pushed the new labouring poor into great morass of misery outside the centre of government and business, and often efficiency can lead to less equitable urban development.
Due to high cost of living, many people in and around urban areas are forced to be engaged in one form of job or the other. Most time young girls are forced to go into prostitution just to meet the demand of the economy as a result of urbanization (Bola, 2008).
Young men who after much struggle could not meet the demand of the economy engage themselves in arm robbery, kidnapping, money ritual and the rest of them just to make sure that they fend for their selves in the economy they find their selves in. also due to high cost of living parent are moved to get their female children married to rich men in order to earn a living (Wolman, 2002).
Urbanization has therefore; pose a very big problem to both male and female in the urban areas (Anker, 2006).
Health effects of urbanization
Unplanned rapid urbanization in Nigeria has given rise to problems such as overcrowding, contamination of water, poor sanitation, air pollution and exposure to mosquitoes. Conditions which are favourable to the spread of serious disease such as cholera, diarrhoea, etc. (Tinasha, 2002).
Unplanned urbanization has been identified as a health hazard in Sapele leading to conditions that spreads serious disease. These disease ranges from environmental problem such as contamination of water, poor sanitation and smoke pollution (air pollution) of indoor air and exposure to mosquitoes along with other example of crowed living condition. According to a United National Report on Global Environmental Outlook (2000), these environmental problems in developing countries are now exacerbated by emerging problems of industrial and agricultural pollution. Chemicals used in both primary sectors are major factors in causing and worsening tuberculosis, bronchitis, heart disease, cancer and asthma. Increased exposure to chemical heals the risk in urban areas is particularly harmful to children and pregnant women (Stewart, 2009).
In urban areas, disease such as cholera and dysentery are prevalent due to lack of access to clean water and bad sanitation. This is because more than half of the population live in unsanitary and unhealthy condition and level of urban development are extremely high. This unhealthy condition is putting a huge strain on the country’s health system (Bola, 2012). United Nations Environment Protection [UNEP] (2009) stated that the poor are often cramped in the inadequate housing along flood plains or other areas that are vulnerable to pollution, because that is the only place where they can afford to rent or build accommodation in the urban part of the country. Due to the unhealthy environment, people living in this part of the urban area are predisposed to malaria, typhoid, cholera and others. However, the process of urbanization has often had hazardous impacts on the health of those who work and live in urban areas.
Housing which has direct effect on the health of people living within such vicinity has increase the risk of contracting non-communicable disease such as pneumonia, due to poor construction of the building. Also those who work in residential environment may be further affected when their production process generates some form of industrial pollution.
Furthermore, a study in this type of industries has defected hazardous waste with consequences such as cardiovascular diseases, skin cancer, neurological disorder, bronchial cancer, photophobia and infant methaemoglobin anaemia (Hamza, 1991).
Environmental effects of urbanization
In developed towns and cities, urbanization is continuing more slowly and only adding to the already existing problem or deforestation in the developed part of Sapele, however, government is doing more to combat environmental degradation through research agrees that much more work is needed (Bola, 2012).
Owen (2007) examined the way in which deforestation affect the total forest area, pollution rate (encompassing waste production and green house gas emission), and biodiversity loss. Looking at these three (3) areas it is possible to see an emerging trend of urbanization immediate negative effect on the surrounding forest area and country’s environmental wellbeing.
Human-beings have become an increasing powerful environmental force over the last 10,000 years with advent of agriculture. The recent increase in the world’s population has magnified the effect of our agricultural and economic activities. But the growth in the world population has masked what may be an even more important human environmental interaction while the world population is doubling (Li, 2009).
Social effects of urbanization
Generally speaking, urbanization upset traditional social patterns, extended families breakdown, etc. urbanization affects not only the family structure but also intra and inter family relationship as well as the functions the family performs.
With urbanization, there is a disruption of the bonds of community and the migrant facing the problem to replace old relationship with new ones and to find a satisfactory means of continuing relationship with those left behind. Several empirical studies of urban facilities conducted by scholars like Kapadia and Aher Ross have pointed out that urban joint family is shrinking, and kingship relationship is confined to two or three generations only. Urbanization has also lead to different social vices such as prostitution, arm robbery, rape etc. as a result of individual trying to meet up to their needs and social functions (Blackman, 2006).
Importance of urbanization
Urbanization is probably the single most important phenomenon in history. Terry (2009) emphasized on the reason why urbanization is important and they include the following:
- Infrastructure
- Improved living standard
- Technology innovation
- Sharing of information
- Education
- Employment
Infrastructure
As cities population increases, government embarks on large project from high way to airport and public transit system. This new infrastructure makes the population more mobile, so that new business can position them along newly established transit route expected to gain access to greater potentials customer base, as more people will be able to travel to their establishment (Blackman, 2006).
Living standard
The living condition standard of life has been improved through the introduction of good water, road, house, security, infrastructure, employment, education, clothing etc.
Technology innovation
Urbanization has made technology so easy to assess by everybody at the same time. In that technology, technology innovation is the process through which new or improved technologies are developed and brought into widespread use. In the simple formation, innovation can be thought of as being composed of research.
Sharing of information
Urbanization which is about development has made it easy to gather information from television set, radio set, and internet etc and share them with the outside world.
Education
As people move increasingly to cities they will likely see their income raise which will allow them to invest in education for their children who in turn will have a good opportunity to enter the middle and upper class in the society.
Employment
Due to the numerous opportunities in the city as a result of urbanization, many individuals have gained job opportunity both in the government and self employed sector, which has allowed them care for their family and their loved ones.
Ways of minimizing the effect of urbanization
As urban area in developing countries become even more crowded over the next quarter century, government and citizen will face a growing challenge according to the UN human settlement programme. Cities will become the “tested for the adequacy of political institution, and the effectiveness of programmes to contact social exclusion, project and repair the environment, and promote human development (Bowman, 2000).
Today, few urban areas are equipped to meet the challenges. In 1987, the world commission on environment and development reported that “ in the space of one decade, the developing world will have to increase by 65% its capacity to produce and manage its urban infrastructure, service and shelter merely to maintain the present condition as the goal are from being meet (Ogu, 2001).
Nevertheless, many steps can be taken to address the problem of rapid urbanization among the developing countries. Some of the measure is highlighted below:
- Improving urban governance
- Good site location
- Use of standard material
- Legislature and enforcement of building bye-law/codes
- Total reconstruction of an area
- Monitoring and surveillance
- Donor agencies
- Standard
- Concept of town planning
Improving urban governance
This include not only urbanization but of relationship between political and administrative institutions, but also the relationship between government, private institution and civil society (Park, 2007).
The UN defined governance as the “sum of ways through which individuals and institution both public and private, plan and damage their common affairs”.
The necessity for proving affordable housing may be a mirage, but every citizen expects government to provide shelter for all, but could start from a level till it reaches a certain percentage which would later be by the private sector through a well formulated and workable policy. If this is started by the government, it will be supported by the private sector and there would be an extensive house ownership with more involvement in the city’s civic affair and attention to quality of life issues.
Legislation and enforcement of building code/bye-laws
Government should provide the political will and legislate building code and regulation to guide acquisition of landed property, erection of structures, and basic housing facilities in the area. Such legislations could then be implemented and enforced by the relevant agencies of government without fear and favour; this will go a long way to reduce cases of building collapse, structure failure or deterioration (Encarta, 2002). It will also prevent alteration of approved plan and urban logout (Habitat 2009).
Monitoring and surveillance
No single set of policies can meet all the challenges of urbanization without effective monitoring and surveillance. Rather, there should be sensible policy approach to monitor through effective surveillance of the considered option for urban renewal agencies. Better government through the appropriate institutional frame work is essential if we are to improve urban living conditions (Encarta, 2009).
Town planning
A town or city planning troll is known as concept plan. There should be a strategic development frame work that could be updated every decade. The plan should be drawn up to include a set broad-based development plan for an eventual increase in population of an estimate of 50 years (Park, 2009).
The concept plan should specify detailed development and recreational facilities. The planning process should not only include government agencies but also citizens and communities and allows for local development planning by neighbourhood (Dasai, 2000).
Good site location
There must be a good site location before purpose, if the site if marshy or water logged, it should be properly sand filled with stones and gravel. Under no circumstance should residential premises be constructed on a reclaimed land site (Li, 2007).
Use of standard material for construction
Material used for the construction of building should be of superior quality. Inferior or low value improvised material should not be used in house construction as their disadvantages, out stand, outnumbered the advantage.
Standard government policy on housing investment must be accept by government as part of her responsibility to provide all necessary affordable housing for its populace (Ogu, 2001).
The necessity for providing affordable house may be a mirage, but every citizen expects government to provide shelter for all, but could start from level dill it reaches a certain percentage which would later be by the private sector through a well formulated and workable policy. If this is started by the government, it will be supported by the private sector and there would be an extensive house ownership with more involvement in the city’s civic affair and attention to quality of life issues.
References
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Blackman, O. (2006). Better Understanding of our Cities, the Role of Urban Indicators. London: Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
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Ejoor, M. (2009), The Human Impact on the Natural Environment (2nd ed.). Benin: MIT Press.
Encarta (2001), “Climate Change and Rapid Urban Expansion in Africa Threaten Children’s Lives.” Retrieved on 20th September, 2015 from http://www.encarta.com
Li, S. (2007). The Exploding Cities of the Developing World. Foreign Affair Report 75 (1), 34-36
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