An investigation into students’ crises in institution of higher learning

Introduction

The term “students’ crises” has been defined in diverse ways. Ibukun (1997) defined “students’ crises as the demonstration made by students leading to destruction of lives and properties as a result of protest over their demands. Asunmo (1999) and Akinyemi (2002) described “students’ crises” as the protest made by student involving confrontation with authority over certain issues with the authority of a school.

Fayana (1990) opined that crises have been associated with the art of violence resulting from dissatisfaction or a situation of disagreement between two parties. It is a state of disharmony that is brought about by differences of imposition, desire or tendencies (Layeski & Bryant, 1994). It occurs when there is a tension or when people intend to revolt against certain social ills or regularities in an organization. Thus tertiary institution students tend to show their displeasure through agitations, protest, demonstrations bonfire and many other ways.

Aluede, Jimoh, Agwinde and Omoregie (2005) opined that incidence of students unrest in Nigeria showed that, in 1981 there was crises in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria where students died and the vice chancellor of the university was dismissed. In 1984 many tertiary institutions rioted over the proposed introduction of tuition fees and scrapping of catering services. This led to the closure of many universities for months. In 1988, students of tertiary institution riots over the removal of subsidy from petroleum and allied products, the introduction of Structural Adjustment Programmers (SAP) also generated crises in many tertiary institutions in Nigeria. In 2003, there were crises in almost all the tertiary institution in Nigeria as a result of increase in the price of petroleum products.

In 2006, there was a crisis over the introduction of Environmental Health Technician (EVT) course in the Department of Environmental Health Technology. The students were made to believe earlier on that graduates from EVT will gain automatic admission to read Higher National Diploma in environmental. In 2017, the Governing Council proposal to increase school charges almost turned riotous. In 2017 university lecturers down tools over what bordered on funding of universities.

Tertiary education in Nigeria dates back to 1948 when the University College Ibadan was established as a college of the University of London (Fatun, 1974; Adesina, 1981). According to him, efforts have been made by both federal, states and individuals to establish more tertiary institution in the country. These efforts have greatly yielded result, now we have in this country over 300 universities. It is pertinent to observe however that the increase in the number of tertiary institution in the country has its own side consequences. This is manifested in the series of students’ crises being witnessed in the tertiary institutions.

According to Magagula (2007) the general mandate of tertiary institution is to generate knowledge and information through teaching and community service. He argued that the basic function of tertiary institution are to teach students and impact knowledge, critical and analytical skills, appropriate values, norms and attitude, create and extend the frontiers of knowledge through research, interrogate existing knowledge with a view to establish “facts” and truths through critical reflection and objective thinking and improve the quality of life of community members through community services

Conceptual framework

Many people view crises as an activity that is almost totally negative and has no redeeming qualities while other school of thought accepted it as dysfunctional, destructive and the same times as a catalyst for changes, creativity and production (Posigha & Oghuvwu, 2009). Crises results from human interaction in the context incompatible ends and where one’s ability to safety needs or end depend on the choices, decision and behaviour of other. It is therefore, possible to argue that crises are endemic to human relationship and societies. It is the result of interaction among people, an unavoidable concomitant of choices and decision and an expression of the basic fact of human interdependence (Adejuwon & Okewale, 2009).

Some scholars posit that there is need to occasionally stimulate it so as to have innovations and improvement in an organization or society as whole. Thus, it is seen as a “necessary evil”, which finds expression in human interactions. What Paul applied and his likes are putting forward is that it will be impossible to see a crises free society or organization contrary to the make-shift belief of the Marxists that a classless society or organization will end crises all over the world.

The point however remains that crises cannot cease because it is innate in man. Thomas Hobbes captures this view eloquently; when in his major work “Leviathan” he  described the hopeless chaos of the state of nature as life without gentility or beauty without charm or peace and without industry and culture (Baradat, 1999). Crises between individual raise fewer problem then crises between groups.

Individual can act independently and resolve their differences. Members of groups may have to accept the norms, goals and value of their group. The individual’s loyalty will usually be to his or her own group even if it is crises with others (Armstrong, 2005). In the view of Imobigbe (1997), crises are condition within an interaction process which is usually the direct result of clash of interest by the parties involved. Wilmost and Hocket (1998) assert that crises are expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceived incompatible goals, scarce resource, and interference from other in achieving their goals. They said crises bring both danger and opportunity to both parties that involved.

In order words, crises can be destructive and constructive. Similarly, Bloisi (2007) sees crises as a disagreement between two or more parties who perceive that they have incompatible concerns. To him, individual group, department, organization countries etc., do experience crises whenever an action by one party is perceived as preventing or interfering with the goal, needs or actions of another.

Horowitz and Borden (1995) defined crises as disagreement over social issues, beliefs and ideologies. Crises are also been described as disagreement on the procedure of distributing power and resources in an organization, basically, crises are what occur when two or more parties have divergent interest over distribution of resources and/or issues touching on their development it is what can come up in the event of staff and students’ interactions. It can emanate from school administrative cadre, among students, or sometimes it can come up between school and its host community.

Historical evolution and development of tertiary education in Nigeria

The history of higher education in Nigeria began with the establishment of Yaba Higher College in 1934, to provide middle-level manpower for government and private sector (Wokocha, 2003).  The college came into being only after a lot of agitations and demands by the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) led by Casely Hayford, a lawyer from Accra Ghana, the headquarters of the organization (Aminigo, 2003).

However, right from the inception of the college the generality of educated Nigerians especially those residents in Lagos condemned the quality of programmes which the Yaba Higher College offered at that time (Nwideeduh, 2003). They viewed the institution as an inferior one designed by the colonialists to produce Nigerians who would always be in subordinate positions to the colonial maters; besides the Yaba Higher College was also seen to be suffering immensely from many disabilities such as the restriction of number of students to be admitted, the stringency of admission requirement, the imposition of the choice of courses and the high rate of drop-out of students (Wokocha, 2003). In line with this, therefore in 1943 the colonial government sets up the Elliot Commission to examine the possibility of establishing university colleges in Nigeria, the Gold coast (Ghana) and Sierra Leone.  The commission report suggested the establishment of the University College, Ibadan, which later came into being in 1948.

By 1960, the University College, Ibadan which was established to award academic degree of the University of London, had established itself as a reputable institution of higher learning; it was also making a great contribution to manpower needs of Nigeria. But the need for a larger output of university graduates was increasingly felt and commonly expressed. For example, as far back as 1955, there were serious thoughts and attempts to establish another university (Jubril, 2003). University College, Ibadan was criticized for its low annual intake conditioned by the residential nature of the college, its continual dependence on the University of London, limited number of disciplines such as engineering, architecture, law, business and accounting been offered by the college.

It was also criticized for not responding to public criticism, demand or needs. There were also criticisms of its constitution, policies and administration, its flagrant and subtle attempts at racial discrimination (Wokocha, 2003). Partly because of these criticisms, the Federal Minister of Education, on behalf of the Federal and Regional Governments, set up the Ashby Commission in 1959, to advice government on the higher education needs of Nigeria for its first two decades (Jubril, 2003; Junaid, 2003; Wokocha, 2003).

The implementation of the recommendation of the commission culminated in the establishment of four new universities at Nsukka in 1960; Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) in 1962; Zaria in 1962, Lagos in 1962; while the University College Ibadan became independent of London University in 1962 and also became a full-fledged University of Ibadan (Jubril, 2003).

By 1962 there were only three regions in Nigeria. Thus each of the regions had a university. With the creation of Mid-Western region in 1963 the yearning for a regional higher institution was re-echoed, which led to the establishment of  University of Benin in 1970 (Wokocha, 2003). With oil boom in Nigeria in the 1970s, the Federal Ministry Government under the leadership of retired General Yakubu Gowon established seven new universities in 1975, viz, Calabar, Port-Harcourt, Ilorin, Jos, Maiduguri, Sokoto and Kano (Nwideeduh, 2003). It was therefore logical to state that all twelve states in the federation then has at least a university within its borders (Kosemani, 1982).

The creation of more states in the country in 1976 by the Federal Military Government under Late General Murtala Mohammed necessitated the need for the geopolitical balancing in establishing federal university in all the nineteen states. This decision informed the birth of the University of Technology at Owerri (Imo state), Bauchi (Bauchi state), Makurdi (Benue State in 1980, Minna (Niger State) and Abeokuta (Ogun State ) in 1982. In 1987, the University of Technology, Makurdi and Abeokuta, became specialized universities of agriculture, while the university of Abuja was opened in 1988 (Nwideeduh, 2003).

On their own part, state governments also joined in the establishment of universities and other tertiary institution like polytechnics, colleges of education etc, to satisfy the higher education needs of their people (National Teachers’ Institution, 2005; Adeyemi, 2009).

In 1999, Nigeria entire tertiary education system (federal, state and private) comprised of 211 institutions: 16 federal universities (conventional), 4 federal universities of technology,  3 federal universities of agriculture, 1 national open university, 4 national centres for specialized tertiary institution, 16 states universities 7 private universities, 1 military university, 17 federal polytechnics, 27 state polytechnics; 7 private polytechnics, 22 federal colleges of education, 38 state colleges of education, 36 colleges of agriculture , and 12 specialized training institution (Williams 2003).

In the year 2011, the numbers of tertiary institution in Nigeria rose to 363, that is 25 federal universities (conventional), 3 universities of agriculture, 6 universities of technology, 1 national open university, 4 national centres for specialized tertiary institution, 29 state universities (convention),  5 state universities of technology, 40 private universities, 1 military  university, 23 federal polytechnics, 22 federal  monotechnics, 6 colleges of health sciences, 40 state polytechnic, 17 state monotechnics, 18 private polytechnic, 2 private monotechnics, 12 federal colleges of education (regular), 8 federal colleges of education  (technical), 1 federal college of education  (special),  44 colleges of education (regular), 3 state colleges of education (technical), 41 private colleges of education and 12 specialized training institution (Joint Admission and Matriculation Board Brochure, 2011).

The increase in the number of tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria could be partly attributed to the Obasanjo (1999-2007) government policy of deregulation (which was also adopted by his successors late Alhaji Umar Musa Yar’adua and the incumbent, president Goodluck Jonathan) in the educational sector. The federal and state government were previously the only bodies licensed to operate tertiary institution in Nigeria. With this new policy, licenses were granted to individuals, corporate and religions bodies to establish private universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. The astronomical rise also bears testimony to the country’s absolute faith in the power of education to transform the nation from her present status of a developing country to a fully developed one. This trend is still continuing (Alibade & David, 2012). Just December 7^th, 2017, three additional private universities were approved. Today, we have close to 400 tertiary institutions in the country.

Crises in the Nigerian tertiary institution

Crises on campus are growing in number, kind and complexity. The current context is clearly more challenging than in the past. The rage of crises and the forums available for their management are much more far –reaching than ever before. In short, society has changed and so has the institutions. It has been observed that students’ crises are becoming more rampant in the tertiary institution and the resultant consequence has been to the detriment of the teaching-learning atmosphere (Adeyemi, Ekundayo & Alonge, 2010).

Institutional based crises vary from campus to campus and reflected institutional size, location, student population, mission, specialization, governance, and unionization. What can trigger crises, perhaps even large scale ones, on one campus may be inconceivable on another. However, institutional based crises also share enough in common to be universally understood. For instance, even in those instances where student evaluations of faculty are not required, there are a widely understood feature of the academic workplace. Higher institutions of learning are confronting with countless pushes and pull from internal and external sources which influence the kind and quality of crises that emerge. The school community experiences countless crises situations (Fatile and Adejuwon, (2011).

Without alternative methods, the crises situations can contribute to a highly adversarial environment. Disputes over school reorganization, faculty performance, multimillion dollar grants, intellectual property, affirmative action, freedom of information, to name a few, all contribute to a complex crises landscape. Some crises are in fact unique to the school setting, such as those involving academic freedom, research, and the micro management of personal matters by peers. Moreover, disputes surrounding a wide range of topics such as norms about faculty, students dating on campus, sexual harassment, policies, or student behaviour codes may also be campus specific. Yet, when crises occur over these and other campus related matters, there are many similarities in the dispute culture across universities (Volpe & Chandler, 2010).

In other instances, situations which may seemingly have no relationship with the school may in fact become a source of major crises and get played out on campus, such as action taken by a foreign  government which are opposed by students. That many of the crises are under the shadow of the law complicates the school crises landscapes. While in other instances, tertiary institution students crises may be related to increase in tuition fees/charges.  Additionally, the legitimacy of traditional authority seems less effective and the reaching of consensus by reasoning together to solve academic issues, weaker. All of these conditions exist while the difference between various faculties, their students, the administration and support systems seem to proliferate (Fatile & Adejuwon, 2011).

The nature and causes of crises

Fatile and Adejuwon, (2011) noted that crises have made management of educational institution  in Nigeria to be the spotlight throughout the country. Educational institution crises in Nigeria are a phenomenon of great concern. Incidence and severity of institution crises has and continues to destroy the basic environmental condition required to provide good environment for developing human resources for Nigeria. The chaotic situation has undermined many programmes aimed at enhancing the importation of knowledge and skills in the future human resources for the country.

As in many developing countries, Nigeria higher institution witness series of organizational conflicts. Many of the crises lead to anarchy on campuses; some disorganize timing of school activities destruct life and properties and in most cases, render school environment completely insecure for serious academic activities. In addition to these, many known school crises have resulted in protracted disharmony in school staff interpersonal relationship, increased indiscipline among students, disarmed school authorities, clogged channel of progressive communication and rendered institution of learning ungovernable (Abonna, 2009; Alabi, 2002; Oguntuase, 1999; Olugbile, 2005). Most violent crises in Nigeria higher institutions of learning have been traced to contested bases of citizenship rights, greed, predatory rule, autocracy, and unresolved grievances (Oloyede, 1999).

As a result of mismanagement of crises and weak school based security mechanism, many mild school conflicts have turned violent and some become unresolved in Nigerian higher institutions. Among many unresolved crises in Nigerian higher education is the crises of unsettled industrial agreement between the Federal Government and the Academic Staff Union of Nigeria Universities (ASUU). The crises started as nine month national strike on April 2^nd 2001 and eventually degenerated to a more complex crises of the sacked 44 Unilorin lecturers. This crises lingers till date (Agbonna, Yusuf & Onifade, 2009).

It has been observed that causes of students’ crises in tertiary institution includes wide communication gap between the students and the school authority, delay in meeting students’ demands by the school authority, failure on the part of the school authority to guarantee security of lives and properties, inadequate facilities such as lecture rooms, laboratories and equipment; drastic and obnoxious rules and regulations, student reaction to harsh government policies, frustration and uncertainly from the larger society, academic stress, students’ non- involvement in decision that concerns their welfare, student being forced to pay special fee etc. (Adeyemi, Ekundayo & Alonge, 2010).

Crises in tertiary institution in Nigeria, over the years have led to breakdown of law and order, disturbance of public peace, loss of lives and properties.  Aluede, Jimoh, Agwinede and Omoregie (2005) indentified the effects of students’ crises as closure of affected school, loss of lives and properties among others.

According to them, the incidence of students’ unrest in Nigeria showed that in 1981, there was crisis in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria where students died and the Vice-Chancellor of the university dismissed, in 1984, many tertiary institutions rioted over the proposed introduction of tuition fees and the scrapping of catering services. This led to the closure of many universities for months, in 1988, students rioted over the removal of subsidy from petroleum and allied products, this also led to the closure of many tertiary institutions for a period of six months, the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP) also generated crises in many tertiary institutions in Nigeria. In 2003, there was crisis in almost all the tertiary institution in Nigeria as a result of increase in the prices of petroleum products.

Religion fundamental is another contributing factor to crisis in tertiary institutions in Nigeria; membership of one or other the various religious denominations entail a fierce sense of territory, sometimes physical, but unfailing spiritual. Ibrahim (2001) observed thus;

Religion has not faded away with modernity; it has not disappeared with the triumph of sciences and rationalism. On the contrary, the religious sphere has expended fuelled by global secular processes such as urbanization, migration transitional capital and the mass media. Religion today is a product of modernity as well as a response to it.

This compulsive territoriality might be one of the remote reasons behind increasing incidence of religious violence on the campuses. What is clearly evident is that each of the two dominant religions perceives itself as being involved with the other in a never–ending struggle for physical space and political resources on campus (Obadare, 2004).

Suffice it  to add that they both see the campus itself as a social space to be conquered and brought under the spiritual superintendence. The following except from a report published by Hotline Magazine in the wake of the June 10-14, 1988 crises at the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria is an excellent case of the situation in contemporary tertiary institution. According to the report: The entire university community (in the case of Ahmadu Bello university, Zaria), not just the students are (sic) divided along lines of religion. Religion division are now so hardened as a result of this latest of many religious disturbances, that very few conversation can be held, few academic debates can be conducted, few appointments and promotion can be made without the issue of religion being up cited as the reason why certain action are being taken, or certain decision made even in the recent appointment of Deputy Vice Chancellors, it is clear that while both men are imminently qualified one had to be a Christian and the other had to be a Muslim (Abubakar, 1988).

Another example is the persistent virulence of students’ union election on university campuses across the country because such election are perceived as undeclared contest for supremacy (both secular and supremacy) between the Christian and Muslim groups, mobilization for them also tends to take place along those lines. Over the past two decades religion considerations have become an integral part not only of the sociology of students’ election but also of students’ politics in general. During campaigns for the election that culminated in the 1988 ABU crises, the Christians reportedly showed their support for Stephen Awobi their candidate (his slogan was ‘a vote for Steve is a vote for Christ) by mobilizing and freely using church drums trumpets and flutes (Odadare, 2004). There are numerous other example of violence arising directly from the linked transmutation of the campuses into a religiosphere and their bifurcation along the Christian/Muslim lines. It is important to add that the issue of religion led to crises in University of Ibadan in 2010. Academic activities were crippled by riots and protest as a result of religious fundamentalism.

Ethnicity is another cause of conflict in Nigeria higher institutions (especially federal institutions). Ethnic group in Nigeria come together to “fight” one another once a new administrator is to be appointed. There are several cases of this type of problem in the country. Schools administrators are also under pressure when staff and students of the schools are to be recruited and admitted respectively. It is interesting to note that many of these conflicts over vacant school administrator positions started to occur in the late 1990s when the issue of ethnicity and religious fundamentalism become a critical factor in Nigeria politics (Uwazie, Albert & Uzoigwe 1999).

It is necessary to note however that unlike what obtains in Lebanon, Belgium, Cyprus India and Malaysia where comparable constitutional provisions and public policy exist, the Nigeria constitution does not reserve or earmark any quotes for any designated ethnic group. Thus each group in the federation adopts its own peculiar self-help strategies to get what it consider to be its own fair share of the Nigeria national cake’’. The end product is widespread suspicion among group and subgroups in the country and this makes dialogue and understanding to be highly expedient at the national, state and communal levels but difficult to attain in the country. Higher education has significant roles to play in dealing  with this problem (Oloyede, 1999).

Incidence of students’ crises in Nigeria

The table below show some of the cases of student crises in Nigeria

Table 1: Some cases of students’ crises in Nigerian tertiary educational institution

(Source: Mumbor, 2017) (Unpublished)

Crises management in Nigeria tertiary institution

Efficient and effective management of crises is fundamental to the development of any society, but prevailing situation in Nigeria constitute a reversal of this reality. Many Nigerian school- higher or lower levels of school have been experiencing organizational crises and insecurity that in most cases hinder them from  achieving the purpose for which they were established. Crises can be managed in different ways, some focusing one interpersonal relationship and other on structural changes.

Robinson, Roy and Clifford (1974) advocated that managing crises toward constructive action is the best approach in resolving crises in an organization. When crises occur, we need to be able to manage them properly, so that it becomes a positive force, rather than a negative one, which would threaten the individual or group.  Parker (1974) argued that if crises arise are not managed properly, it will lead to delays of work, disinterest and lack of action and in extreme cases, it might lead to complete breakdown of the group. Unmanaged crises may result in withdrawal of individual and unwillingness on their part to participate in other group or assist with various group action programmes in the organization. Crises are attendant feature of human interaction and cannot be eliminated; however, its proper management and transforming are essential for peace and progress in human society. This is why crises resolution is one of the most important challenges of governance.

In resolving school crises, developing a constructive communication process and influential crises negotiator’s personality are very important. No doubt, school cannot avoid experiencing one conflict or the other but a great deal of such crises can be managed and be guided from disrupting school efforts toward attaining its manifest and latent goals if the crises parties are systematic in the way they communicate their grievances, situation of the crises and their readiness to negotiate for peace and if the negotiator mediating the resolution process is of good personality (Agbonna, Yusuf & Onifade, 2009).

Crises management in school demands appropriate leadership style of the school administrator or chief executive. Demers in Magaula (2007) articulated three strategies of peaceful crises resolution between and among warring parties; mediation arbitration and reconciliation. Magagula (2007) also argued that each of the approaches of Demers could be used by schools to resolve crises among and between aggrieved parties.

In addition to this, school crises communication should be devoid of propaganda and cognitive discrepancy. Cognitive discrepancy is a condition that occurs when each crises group develops totally opposite explanation for the causes and situation of the crises. Message of the situation of crises when developed on propaganda and cognitive discrepancy tends to breed rumours, it distort third party’s understanding of the crises. Literature establishing the fact that third party in the situation of crises tend to sympathize with the victims of lies rather than with the lying group (Bray, 1999).

Communicators in school crises management need not conceal the truth. Their messages for peace, their assurance of restoring power and their promise of cooperation toward developing the school should be sincerely communicated (Agbonna & Okafor, 2008). The crises negotiator in school crises and insecurity situation should be of personality that can convince and assure the crises parties of the sincerity of the crises resolution process and that of his involvement in the resolution.

Messages of resolution and peace in school crises management need to be timely delivered. This is necessary to give a clear stance of crises management term and the progress made so far in resolving the crises. Delivering the message early can help third party peace negotiators to project where to direct their intervention. Such timely communication, most especially when it is positive and reveals that the stronger of the crises will work for peace and for the interest of all, alleviate fear and hinder the spread of rumour or fear of victimization, it reduces tension in crises situation. Also in school crises situation, school authorities can work on communicating quickly enough, their effort to return into the school and to meet the demand of the opposing group where necessary. Delivering the message first and earlier than that of the opposing group could make the first communicator’s message have more impact than that of the opposing group would latter.

The strategy of the state in managing crises needs to be redesigned. For instance, the use of military operatives to troubleshoot crises in the tertiary institution was not the best way of managing crises. Instead from experience, the military had merely compounded and aggravated the problem. Military solution has not worked in all record of crises in Nigeria tertiary institutions as they had increased the numbers of casualties, perpetrated untold humanitarian crimes and further destroyed the places physically. The police are better trained to arrest civil violence than soldier, and therefore the police should be left for managing disputes in the Nigeria tertiary institution. It is also recommended that school authorities should be more democratic in handling students’ affair involve students in decision-making process especially on issues that borders on them.

Another effective way of curbing students’ crises is calling students for dialogue. A study carried out by Adeyemi et al. (2010) revealed that maintaining a very cordial relationship between the school authorities and the students as well as involving students in decision making process have been the most effective strategies of curbing students’ crises.

Also, Aluede (2001) recommended, among other things, greater involvement of students in decision making processes as a way of reducing campus unrest. In order to stamp out crisis from schools, Ladipo (1997) posited that there should be effective leadership among school authorities. Nigerian leaders as well as management of tertiary institution in the country also need to create avenues for discussing and designing a popularly accepted non-violent strategy for managing crises in the tertiary institution in the country. Again it is recommended that authorities of tertiary institution should always embark or focus more on preventive strategies in other to reduce crisis in schools rather than curative measures.

Also the school crises manager must value peace before he can successfully persuade the crises parties to work toward resolving the school crisis. A school crises manager that values peace probably would see crises resolution as a give and take exercise. Through, valuing peace does not mean to compromise school objective or compromise the exclusive right of the school authority to be the custodian of the utmost power in the administration of the school, yet the utmost power  can be judiciously applied when the holder of the power values peace and has the personality of compromising a little to be able to retain peace, knowing fully well that there is no win-all in crises resolution (Agbonna, 2009).

The manager should be able to display rich experience and sound judgment of crises situation before his intervention can be affective. This is why it is important that the crises manager be a person that may have been personally trained in the area of human management.

In the work of Mohamedbhai as cited by Magagula (2007), he recommended that schools can offer stand alone course on crises management and resolution, peace education, civic education, good governance, basic and human rights, separation of power government, the legislature, and the judiciary, bill of rights, social justice, respect and the rule of law, and virtues of peace, tolerance, patience and respect for life, etc. for all members of society. Alternately studies recommend teaching peace as General Nigerian Studies (GNS) course, with a view to making Nigeria school a location for the promotion of dialogue, understanding and tolerance.

There is need for all tertiary institution to teach “Peace and Crises Studies” to all students. All students must have a dose of peace and civic education as well as crises prevention, management and resolution. This will enable all Nigerian students to be grounded in the knowledge of how to handle non-violently all forms of crises they might encounter with other Nigerians.

References

Abubakar, M. (1986). Armageddon at ABU: Hotline Newspaper, Jun 27-July 10

Adejuwon, K. D. & Okewale, R. A. (2009). Ethnic militancy, insurrections and democracy in Africa; The case of Nigeria. Journal at social and policy issues, Vol.6, No 4

Adesina, S. (1981). What is educational planning? Introduction to educational planning, Ile-Ife Press Limited, pp 34-72.

Adeyemi, T. O. Ekundayo, H. T & Alonge, H. O. (2010). Managing students’ crises in tertiary institution  in Nigeria. Journal of Research in National Development  Vol.8, No1.

Agbonna, S. A. (2009). Prevalence of subculture of violence and delinquent tendencies in among secondary school student in Illorin, Kwara State Nigeria. African  Journal of Historical Sciences in Education, Vol, 5, No. 1&2

Agbonna, S. A & Okafor, I. P. ( 2008). Perspectives of Nigeria police men across educational levels on causes and prevention. Journal of art and social sciences, Vol 10, No 1

Agbonna, S.A., Yusuf, A. & Onifade, A. B. (2009). Communication and conflict manager’s personally in school security and conflict manager. Being A text of paper presented at the 25^th Annual National Conference of the Social Studies Association of Nigeria, held at Michael Otedola College of primary education, Noforiji, Epe, Lagos state, 17^th -20^th  November, 2009.

Akinyemi, B. (2002). Management of students’ crises in higher institution in Ekiti State” Unpublished Med. University  of Ado- Ekiti. Pp 61-68.

Aluede, O. O, (2001), Factors influencing student unrest in tertiary institution in Edo state of Nigeria. Education Research Quarterly. Vol. 24. No3 pp. 10-26.

Aluede, O. O., Jimoh, B., Agwinde, B. O. & Omoregie, E. O. (2005). Students’ unrest in Nigeria universities looking back forward. Journal of Social  Science, vol 10, No 1 pp17 – 22.

Armstrong, M. (2005). A handbook of human resource management practice. London and Sterling; Kogan Page.

Asunmo, O. (1999). Management of students’ crises in Nigeria higher institution, a case study of St. Andrews’ College of Education Oyo, unpublished Med Thesis, university of Ibadan. pp,54-62

Baradat, L.p. (1999). Political ideologies: this origin  impact, London Practice-Hall International.

Bloisi, W. (2007). An introduction to human resource management, London McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.

Falua, B. T. (2004). Management of student crises in secondary school in Ado, Ekiti state” unpublished Med thesis University of ado Ekiti. pp 63-72.

Fajana, S. (1990). Conflict tactics and strategies of Nigeria in trade union convergence, diversity and implication. Nigeria Journal of Personnel Management  (4) 8-12.

Horowiz, A. I. & Burdens, K. S. (1995). Social psychology.  Toronto: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Holton, S.A. (1998). Academic mortar to meant the cracks; The Holton Model for conflict manager” in Holton S.A. mending the crack in the Ivory tower strategies for conflict management in higher education. Holton, MA: Anker Publishing, Inc.

Ibrahim, J. (2001). Civil society religion and democracy in contemporary African. In: Bjorn, B. Eva, (eds). Civil  society and authoritarianism in the third world: a Conference Book, PODS: Stockholm University.

Imobighe, T. A. (1997). Conflict management in Nigerian; In: Bello – Imam,  government in Nigeria: economic; polities and society in the adjustment years 1985-1995, Ibadan: Stripling –Harden Ltd.

Lodiop, M. (1997). Crises management: The expertise of Nigerian universities professional administration. Pp, 1-2.

Magagula, C. M. (2007). Conflict resolution and management: the role of African higher education; Paper presented at a Seminar celebrating the African University day at the University of Swaziland Kwalusen, 15 November.

Obadare,  E.  (2004). From student to disciples: Fundamentalism and the structural transformation of university campuses. In: Agbaje, A.A.B; Diamond .L. &  onwudiwe, E. (eds), Nigeria  struggle for democracy and good governance, Ibadan; University of Ibadan Press.

Ola, R. F. & Oyibo, E. E. (2000). Administrative theories and their application Ibadan and Lagos: Amfitop  Books

Oloyede, I.O. (1999), Cultural pluralism as challenge to the Effectiveness  of universities education in fostering the culture of dialogue and understanding paper delivered at the 2009  I.A. U. conference on “the role of higher education in fostering the culture  of dialogue  and understanding  in Nigeria” Notre Dame University, Louaize Lebanon, November 4,6. 2009.

Olugbile, S. (2005). Hostel privatization in varsities square crises. Punch Newspaper, Jan. 25, 2005 P.41

Oyo, J. D. (1995). Students unrest in Nigerian universities; A legal and historical approach, Lagos; Spectral Books Ltd pp34-36

Parkar, J. (1974). Some ideas about working  with individually and in group . Ohio

Posigha,  B,E & Oghuvwa, V. (2009). conflict among  staff in Bayelsa and Delta State of  Nigerian. Institution Journal of Labour and Organizational Psychology, Nos. 1&2

Robinson, W. J. & Clifford, R. A (1974). Conflict management in community group, university of Illinois at Urban – Champaign North central regional extension publication, No. 36-45

Sessa, V. I.(1996). Using perspective taking to mange conflict and effect in teams J. Appl. Behar. Sci. 32 (1): 101-115

Uwazie, E.U., Albert, I.O. & Uzoigwe, G.N. (1999), inter-ethnic and religious  conflict resolution in Nigerian. Lebam. Maryland: sexing book.

Volpe, M. R. & Chandler, D. (2010). Resolving conflict in institution: challenges for paramedics.

Wilmot, W. W. & Hocke, J. L. (1998). Conflict in organization, is it always bad news? Washington, Business Journal vol. 12, No. 4.