Health, Safety and Environment in Construction Work

Introduction

Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and the European Union. The fatal occupational injury rate among construction works in the United States was nearly three times that for all workers (Betty, 1991). Fall is a most common cause of fatal and non-fatal injuries among construction workers. Proper safety, environment and health measures can help curtail the risk of occupational injuries and death in the construction industries, says Ravago Group Properties professionals. Some major causes of fatal injuries in the construction industries include electrocution, transportation accidents and trench cave in.

De-Reamer (1998) observed that the first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen like bricklayers and carpenters appeared. Occasionally slaves were used for construction work. In the middle ages these were organised into guides. In the 19^th Century, steam-powered machinery appeared and later diesel and electrical powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers.

Construction includes creating awesome structures that can show the beauty and creativity of the human intellect in translating designs into reality.

Asogwa(2007) observed that workers in construction companies are usually faced with injuries and the situation is increasing due to lack of awareness of the potential risks surrounding construction job sites. The complex nature of the present day industries is due to the need to meet the requirement of increased production rate, high efficiency and optimization. Negligence at any stage from concept of design erection operation can result into disaster (Jain & Rao, 2011).

Today, health, safety and environment is an integral part of any industry, whether agriculture, manufacturing or construction industry. It is important that safety, health and environment systems be designed, incorporated and people trained adequately, checks and counterchecks made to ensure implementation. Safety, health and environment are interrelated and affect each other. If an employee health is not given due regards, it may lead to accident. If the environment around workplace is polluted by an industry, this will affect the health of the employee and in turn affect production.

Health, safety and environment is important for sustainable development in modern societies especially in work places where accidents and hazards occur more frequently.

Accident rates have increased as industrialization and technology continue to be the focus of nations in economic growth and development in modern society. Health, safety and environment measures/ management are necessary at all stages of industrial operation or processes from equipment design, manufacture or construction, testing/quality control to delivery and operation at work site(Amadi, 2010).

The management of hazards and risks in industries is a key to the promotion of workers’ health, safety and increased productivity. Furthermore, health, safety and environment form important links associated with unsafe acts/unsafe conditions that result to diseases, accidents and injuries in workplace. Industries have a major role to play in monitoring the health of workers because a healthy workforce is an asset or valuable resource to productivity of a company and national economy in general.

Health, safety and environmental measures in construction industries should be a major concern for everybody but it is a pity that in this part of the world, especially in Nigeria, it is not so. The civil and building construction works involves excavation and/or demolition, concrete work, painting, roofing, operation of machines, plant and equipment, use of hand tools and many other operations. Ayorinde (1990) recommends that there is need for relevant authorities, regulatory bodies, societies, scientists, professionals and businessmen to establish safety, health and environmental management programme and laws governing construction work activities. Studies have shown that there are increased rates of accidents resulting in injuries, death, disability and damage to property in recent years. The industries activities of companies in polluting the environment in their areas of operation have equally increased. It has negative impact on community life, leading to protest, hostilities and civil unrest. Health and safety has not been given due attention in the construction industries in Nigeria and thereby making workmen on site prone to accident and even death and many disabled. This study will help the researcher in creating solution to the problem encountered in the provision of health, safety and environmental system for worker on site. The importance of health, safety and environment practices in industries cannot be over emphasized. Ikechukwu, Diugwu and Ashem (2012) pointed out that failure of employers to provide conducive environment, personal protective equipments or the inability to use these facilities appropriately has resulted to different occupational hazards such as the loss of lives of four workers and about 100 innocent souls in an industrial accident both in Abuja and Ijejun (Segun, 2013). Therefore the adaptation of health, safety and environmental practices demonstrates the readiness of an industry to minimize the frequency and severity of work related sickness, accident and damage to property and environment.

Construction includes creating awesome structures that can show the beauty and creativity of the human intellect in translating designs into reality. Asogwa (2007) states that workers in construction companies are usually faced with injuries and the situation is increasing due to lack of awareness of the potential risks surrounding construction job sites. Osanyingbemi(2007) opined that the construction industry has been recognized as one of most hazardous industries.The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen like bricklayers and carpenters appeared. Occasionally slaves were used for construction work. In the middle ages these were organised into guides. In the 19^th Century, steam-powered machinery appeared and later diesel and electrical powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers.

Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in the United States, Africa and the European Union. It involves erection, installation, assembly, demolition, or fabrication activities involved to create a new facility or to alter, add to, rehabilitate, dismantle, or remove an existing facility. It also includes the alteration and repair (including dredging, excavating, and painting) of buildings, structures, or other real property, as well as any construction, demolition, and excavation activities conducted as part of environmental restoration or remediation efforts. In 2009, the fatal occupational injury rate among construction works in the United States was nearly three times that for all workers. Fall is a most common cause of fatal and non-fatal injuries among construction workers. Proper Health, Safety and Environmental measure can help to curtail the risk of occupational injuries and death in the construction industries. Some major causes of fatal injuries in the construction industries include electrocution, transportation accidents and trench cave-ins.

Conceptual framework

The complex nature of the present day industries is due to the need to meet the requirement of increased production rate, high efficiency and optimization. Negligence at any stage from concept of design erection operation can result into disaster (Jain & Rao, 2011). Today, Health, Safety and Environment is an integral part of any industry, whether agriculture, manufacturing or construction industry. It is important that Health, Safety and Environment systems be designed, incorporated and people trained adequately, checks and counterchecks made to ensure implementation. Health, Safety and Environment are interrelated and affect each other. If an employee’s health is not given due regards, it may lead to accident. If the environment around workplace is polluted by an industry, this will affect the health of the employee and in turn affect production.

Health, Safety and Environment is important for sustainable development in modern societies especially in work places where accidents and hazards occur more frequently. Accident rates have increased as industrialization and technology continue to be the focus of nations in economic growth and development in modern society. Health, Safety and Environment measures/ management are necessary at all stages of industrial operation or processes (from equipment design, manufacture or construction, testing/quality control to delivery and operation at work site (Amadi,2010).

The management of hazards and risks in industries is key to the promotion of workers’ health, safety and increased productivity. Furthermore, Health, Safety and Environment form important links associated with unsafe acts/unsafe conditions that result to diseases, accidents and injuries in workplace. Industries have a major role to play in monitoring the health of workers because a healthy workforce is an asset or valuable resource to productivity of a company and national economy in general.

Agwu and Hilda (2012) suggest that Health, Safety and Environmental measures in construction industries should be a major concern for everybody but it is a pity that in this part of the world, especially in Nigeria, it is not so. In the civil and building construction works which involves excavation and/or demolition, concrete work, painting, roofing, operation of machines, plant and equipment, use of hand tools and many other operations. There is need for relevant authorities, regulatory bodies, societies, scientists, professionals and businessmen to establish Health, Safety and Environmental management programme and laws governing construction work activities.

The Concepts of Health, Safety and Environment in Construction Industries

Health

Health as defined by WHO (1948) is a state of complete physical, mental and social, wellbeing of an individual and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Dubos (1959, as cited in Unuraye, 2011) defined Health as the protection of the bodies and minds of people from illness resulting from the workplace. There is a relationship that exists between workers health and their working environment.

Dubos (1968 as cited by Onuzulike, 2007) emphasized that health is a quality of life involving social, emotional, mental, spiritual and biological fitness on the part of the individual which result from adaptation to the environment.

Safety

Safety refers to being safe from danger or situation that can cause harm or injure (Phil & Ferret, 2011). It also refers to the precautions; people take to prevent accident, danger, harm, or loss of properties. The objective is the improvement of working conditions for better health. Safety is essential to all, everywhere and at all times. Safety in construction has always been measured by the level of implementation of safety procedures and hazard control mechanism. Lack of safety implementation always results to accidents.

High safety measures must be set by employers and must be understood by employees. Effective safety training and good communication skills are important tools in a construction site. There is need for an assessment of safety practices in every construction site.

Nwachukwu (2000, as cited in Unuraye, 2007) defined Accident, as sudden and unforeseen event that can occur anywhere and anytime resulting in injury, sickness, deformity and sometimes damage to property. Here to avoid all these unpleasant events, workers must be encouraged to be safety conscious always and safety first should be their watch word.

Accidents can be classified based on the ability to cause harm or damage which are;

Accident involving injury
Accident involving damage to property
Accident involving no injury and no property damage (near miss).

Environment

Amadi (2009) explained that the environment is the collective term used to describe all the living things that make up our surrounding. This environment consist of three major components viz; physical, biological, and social or psychosocial environment.

Garg (2010) opined that the environment is the surrounding in which an Organization operates including air, water, land, flora, fauna, humans and their inter-relationship. All of these components are in a state of equilibrium or harmony as established by nature and disruption of this balance leads to death, disease, injury leading to work absence, man-hour loss and low productivity. It is therefore imperative for industries to strike a balance between the three elements; health, safety and environment, so that workers can have optimum health and general well being.

Therefore construction companies should ensure that the environment is conserved. Environment consists of all living things (biotic) and the non living part (abiotic) with which man interacts. These component parts (physical, biological and social and psychological factors) are in a state of equilibrium or harmony as established by nature under normal circumstances. Disruption of this balance leads to disease or ill health and injury, culminating in work absence, man-hour loss and low productivity.

Construction in the modern industrialized world involves translating of designs into reality. According to National Association for Environmental Management [NAEM] (2010) every employer has a legal obligation to furnish employment (work) and a place of employment (workplace or environment) free from known hazards that could cause serious injury or death. In order to reduce the cost and risks associated with workplace injuries, illness and fatalities, much emphasis need to be placed on Health, Safety and Environment of the worker as it is done on other management issues such as production, sales, transportation and quality control.

David (2011) pointed out that emphasis on Health, Safety and Environment in the construction firm is essential as it keeps people safe and healthful. Health, Safety and Environment in construction management deserve utmost attention because construction is widely recognized as one of the accident prone activities. Most of the accidents are caused by inadequate planning, failure during construction/maintenance process and/or because of design deficiencies.

Amadi (2010) described Health, Safety and Environment as a critical issue in environmental public health globally. Health, Safety and Environment is important for sustainable development in modern societies, especially in work places where accidents and hazards occur more frequently. Thus, industries or companies are bound by law to have an effective and functional Health, Safety and Environmental management system in compliance with local and international legislations, regulations, guidelines and standards. The management of hazards and risks in industries is key to the promotion of workers’ health, safety and increased productivity.

Poor implementation or lack of Health, Safety and Environmental management system has a multiplier effect on workers’ health, productivity of the company and the wellbeing of the public or communities in the area. This may also impact on the national economy in general, leading to decreased gross domestic product (GDP). An effective environmental health workforce with adequate competencies is therefore required to address the emerging issues. The non-employment of environmental health officers/practitioners by most industries/companies in Nigeria militates against the enforcement of the relevant provisions laid down in the Factories Act, 1987, National Environmental Health Practice Regulations, 2007, Public Health Laws (e.g. Cap 103, vol. 6, Laws of Eastern Nigeria, 1963) etc, negates full implementation of Health, Safety and Environmental guidelines.

Jain and Rao (2011) explained that Health, Safety and Environment is an inevitable aspect of construction and this is so because the only time an employee will perform his duties is when the employee is in good health and is sure of a safety working condition. This boils to the fact that a worker will perform his duties to the fullest only when he is sure that even when an accident occurs he will be taken good care of. One of the most important things that an employer should provide to his employees is safety even at a low risk site. At sites where heavy machinery is being used; it is certain that the level is higher because of the mechanical movement of parts of such machinery and therefore for the employee that will be monitoring or operating such machinery will be exposed to accidents. In a case like this, it should be known that the level of safety that will be provided will be much more than that of a site where ordinary hand tools are been used. Based on the above, we now understand that the level of Safety, Health and Environmental protection will be higher nowadays because of the rapid mechanization of the construction industry and the accidents that may occur will definitely be more fatal.

Generally, there are five types of construction;

Residential building construction
Industrial building construction
Commercial building construction
Institutional construction
Heavy civil construction

Each type of construction project requires a unique team

To plan .design, construct and maintain the project.

Types of Construction Equipment and Their Functions

According to Ankush (2014) the following are some types of machineries used in carrying out construction works and they include;

Trucks: These are used for transport materials such as sands, cements, gravel, etc from one place to another by construction companies.
Scrapers: These machines are made up of a tractor and a skip. The skip is equipped with a blade, used to strip the soil and collect the materials into the skip. The scrapers are dual purpose machines performing both the loading and transport operations.
Compactors: These are machineries used in construction industries. Their role is to compact soil, gravel, concrete and either to prepare and level it for road construction or to finish the road surface e.g. vibration rollers, road rollers.
Loaders: This is a heavy equipment used in construction to move aside or load materials such as asphalt, demolition debris, dirt, snow, gravel, logs, rocks, sand, etc into or onto another type of machinery such as a dump truck, etc. examples of loaders include, bucket loaders, front loaders, wheel loaders.
Excavators: They are also known as diggers. They are used for excavation or digging of trenches, holes or foundation. It is also used for demolition works, or river dredging, etc.
Bituminous distributors: Is a truck – mounted plant for generating liquid bituminous materials such as asphalt and tar and applying them to road surfaces through a spray bar connected to the end of the truck.
Cranes: A crane is a lifting machine that principally works with the use of pulleys and cables. It helps to lift and lower large loads and are either fixed to the ground or mounted on a purpose built vehicle. Examples of cranes are tower cranes, vehicle mounted cranes, etc. others include concrete mixer, forklift, etc.

Hazards Associated with Construction Works

According to Health Safety Executives (2006) and Syed (2012) the following are hazards facing construction workers;

Slips and falls
Falls from height
Struck by moving objects
Moving machineries
Other hazards

Slips and falls: Slips and falls on the same elevation is associated with poor housekeeping, such as excessive waste debris, loose construction materials, liquid spills and uncontrolled use of electrical cords and ropes on the ground, are also among the frequent cause of lost time accidents at construction and demolition sites.
Falls from height: Falls from elevation is associated with working with ladders, scaffolding and partially built or demolished structures. It is the major cause of fatal or permanent disabilities, injury at a construction or demolition sites. If fall hazards exist, a fall protection plan should be put in place.
Truck by moving objects: Construction and demolition activities may pose significant hazards related to the potential fall of materials or tools, as well as ejection of solid particles from abrasive or other types of power tools which can result in injury to the head, eyes and extremities.
Moving machineries: Vehicle traffic and use of lifting equipment in the movement of machinery and materials on a construction site may pose temporary hazards, such as physical contact, spills, dust, emissions and noise. Heavy equipment operators have limited fields of view close to their equipment and may not see pedestrians close to the vehicle. Center-articulated vehicles create a significant impact or crush hazard zone on the outboard side of a turn while moving. Examples of construction machineries includes; wheel loaders, trucks, forklifts, hydraulic excavators, skid loaders, tower cranes, concrete mixers, bituminous distributors, air compressors and pumps, etc.
Other hazards: construction sites may pose a risk of exposure to dust, chemicals, hazardous or flammable materials, pathogenic organisms which can result to eczema, ringworms, tetanus, etc, psychological hazards and wastes in a combination of liquid, solid and gaseous forms, which should be prevented through the implementation of project specific plans and other applicable management practices.

Causes of Hazards in Construction Companies

Unsafe act

Failure to wear personal protective equipment
Improper use of equipment
Failure to shut off equipment when not in use.
Throwing of material or tools in the workplace e. t .c.

Unsafe conditions

Overcrowded workplace i.e. unsafe workplace
Use of defective tool that is crack, broken and worn.
Design of structures and building contrary to specification.

Prevention of Hazards

According to Olojoba (2009) there is need for the prevention and control of likely hazards in the work place. The different prevention and control measures can be grouped into the following;

Administrative Control

his control alters the way work is done or organized which includes provision of basic infrastructures, medical examination, provision of first aid facilities, health education, monitoring and surveillance, rest and relaxation shift duties, annual leaves and incentives.

Formulation of laws/policies: the formulation of policies, laws and regulation is very vital in any construction company. Laws on Health, Safety and Environment should be promulgated and enforced strictly in an construction company and failure to adhere to such laws should attract fines and punishment such as deduction of salaries, working extra-hours, suspension of workers.
Provision of basic infrastructure: Management of any construction company should ensure basic infrastructures are provided for workers such as waste disposal facilities, canteen, sanitary conveniences and potable water supply needed for optimum health should be provided. There should be provision of good illumination, both natural and Artificial. The building should contain emergency exit doors that can open outward and inbuilt fire alarm system, wide passages, fortified staircases and fire extinguishers in case of emergencies.
Medical examination: The management should ensure that workers are given medical examination like pre-employment, periodic and pre-placement medical examinations from time to time to ascertain the health status of workers.
Training and health education: health education and training should start before the workers enter the factory. Workers should be familiar with the risk and measures to prevent such risk from time to time. They should be educated on the damages and effects off not adhering to safety policies using charts, posters, seminars, workshops and handbills, etc.
Monitoring and close surveillance: The management of construction industries should ensure regular inspection of construction sites and environments to ensure that physical; hazards like heat, vibration, cold associated with equipment and processes do not exceed the maximum tolerable level.
Rest and recreation: It is important that time be set aside for rest and recreation of workers in order to reduce boredom and fatigue associated with long hours of working. This creates a more relaxed atmosphere and enhances high productivity and development of interpersonal relationship among workers.
Good housekeeping: Poor housekeeping can result to accidents in construction sites. Therefore management should ensure that there is an effective housekeeping in order to prevent workplace hazards such as tripping over loose object on floors, cutting or puncturing of workers.
Annual leave and incentives: Employers should ensure that workers are given incentives to encourage them on a work well done. It is also necessary for employers to grant workers annual leave at least once in a year to enable them rest from long period of work in order to boost their health status.

Engineering Control

This method is preferred way of reducing hazards associated with construction works because they minimize the chance of exposure due to accidents but can be expensive. It is the method of redesigning and modifying plants, processes and equipment in order to minimize workers exposure to hazards. They includes;

Isolation: Hazardous equipment and processes should be isolated in order to reduce exposure to hazards. Operators of such machines and processes are adequately equipped and trained in safe practices as well as not being exposed to the effects for long.
Substitution/modification: Employers should ensure that hazardous machines and processes are substituted with less hazardous ones. Hazardous machines and equipments can be redesigned or modified in such a way to present lesser effect.
Process control: This is done to change the way a job is carried out to reduce the risk attached to them. Employers should also monitor this process so that the changes implemented results to less exposure.

Personal protective equipment: The management of construction industries should ensure that standard Personal Protective Equipment are made available for workers in order to prevent or reduce the risk of occupational hazards. Examples of PPEs include; helmets, eye goggles, hand gloves, nose mask, safety boot, safety belt, harnesses, life jackets, face shield, ear muff, coverall, etc.

Negligence of Health, Safety and Environment in Construction Industries

The Negligence’s of health, safety and environment practices in industries have various effects on the following; they are:

The workers
The environment
The Company
The nation.
Effects on workers.

The following are the effects of negligence’s of health, safety and environment on the workers.

Physical pain and mental agony resulting from injury
Disability
Loss of earning power
Loss of leisure activities such as hobbies and recreation
Loss of life
Effects on the environment.

Construction activities have various effects on our environment and failure to adhere to HSE measures result in the following; soil erosion, air pollution, noise and vibration and contamination of land and water. These in turn result to the degradation of the environment.

Reputation
Money loss
Time loss
Reputation – A company with several occurrences of fatal accident and environmental degradation has a bad reputation in the eyes of the public, many skilled workers may quit and the government may withdraw its operating license which will lead to its fold up.

Money loss- The industries incur losses through the following ways;
Medical treatment of accident victims
Burial expenses in case of death
Payment of salary while workers is still sick.
Likely court cases
Money in cleaning the environment in the case of oil spillage.
Replacement of damage equipment (property).

b) Time loss: Time is money according to a popular musical record. Time is lost in the industry through;

Follow workers helping the victim and leaving their jobs
Follow worker group discussion on the accident
Attending of burial ceremonies
Effect on the nation: Government derives revenue from taxes levied on the companies, when accident occurs this reduces the income gotten by the government.

Policies of HSE in Construction Industries

The following are policies of HSE in construction companies;

Establishment and provision of good working environment for workers.
Carrying out of periodic medical examination on workers.
Giving of health education and training program
Close monitoring and surveillance of workers to ensure all health and safety rules are strictly adhered to.
Proper treatment and disposal of wastes
Provision of basic amenities for workers e.g water supply, sanitary conveniences, canteen services e.t.c

Need for Health, Safety and Environment Policy

The volume of industrial activities have increased and become more complex than ever before. This in turn has increased accident exposure rates and the resultant effect on the wellbeing of the workforce on the one hand and productivity on the other hand. Similarly, there is a growing demand for increased production rate, high efficiency and optimization which involve huge investment cost. To meet these requirements, the health, safety and environment need to be integrated.

Objectives of Health, Safety and Environment Policy

The policy objectives are:

To enhance the safety of employees and minimize production loss.
To prevent accidents resulting in injuries, disability death, and damage of property and equipment.
To prevent disruption of industrial operations and man-hour loss.
To prevent pollution of the environment and safeguard public health.
To promote industrial harmony and stability.
To enhance the company image, prestige or reputation.
To reduce down-time expenditure on workers compensation and cost of litigation or legal expenditure on damages and improved productivity.
To enhance effective relationship and co-existence with host communities, etc.

Importance of Health, Safety and Environment Policy

Bhattacharya (2008) opined that a proper and detailed development and implementation of an integrated Health, Safety and Environment Policy in industries will lead to:

Establishment and maintenance of good safety for the protection of workers, equipment and environment.
Compliance with the regulations and standards of occupational safety, health and environment.
Adequate planning, design, operation and maintenance of equipment, facilities, processes, procedures to enhance safety, and health of employees, as well as the protection of the environment.
Adequate training of the workforce on safety procedures for effective and prompt response to accidents andemergencies.
Organization of health, safety and environmental management performance audit by external auditors to ensure compliance, so that stakeholders’ confidence may be safeguarded.
Adoption and promotion of industry best practices that will prevent accidents and occupational health, safety and environmental management performance standards.
Increased management commitment to health, safety and environmental management for the benefit of the workers and well being of the public through continuous improvement.
Preservation of ecological balance and heritage.

Benefits of Adherence to Health, Safety and Environmental Practice

According to David (2011) the following are benefits of health, safety and environmental practices (HSE) in industries;

Increase efficiency and productivity: This involves high productivity or outcome and it can be achieved when health, safety and environmental practices are strictly adhere to such as, the provision of basic necessities like good illumination and ventilation (both natural and artificial), provision of personal protective devices, provision of portable water supply etc needed to promote the workers state of health thereby leading to job satisfaction which in turns leads to high efficiency of the worker.
Increase in profits: This can be attained when there is high efficiency and productivity of workers in the industries. It can also results when there are less or zero accidents in the work place which will results to no or less money spent on likely court cases, burial expenses, compensation of injured workers, replacement of damaged equipment and cleaning up of environment that is polluted.
Results to no injuries: When the working environment of an industry is safe and conducive and safety precautions such as adherences to safety warnings and signs, personal hygiene, the use of equipment, proper use of personal protective equipment, prevention of horse play in the working place are taken into consideration by the workers, it results to zero accidents which prevents injuries or disabilities.
Prevents environmental pollution/degradation: When Health, safety and Environmental (HSE) practices are strictly adhere to, it prevents the pollution or degradation of the environment by industrial activities such as contamination of land and water bodies, excavation and drilling activities, deforestation, gas flaring and the incineration of solid wastes.
Long life shelf of equipment: This refers to long life span of equipment in the industries. It can be attained when there is satisfactory design and maintenances of machinery from time to time. It can also be attained when machines are guarded and good housekeeping which prevents accident which may results to damage to the parts of the machines.

Accidents on Construction Site

Accidents are some unpleasant and damaging happenings or occurrence that happens unexpectedly or by chance or by mistake. (Longman’s Dictionary of Contemporary English). Keech (2009) also pointed out that accidents are unplanned and unfortunate events that result into damage, injury or upset of some kind. Accidents on construction sites cannot be over emphasized; it could happen as a result of a mistake or lack of concentration or even natural disaster. Accidents can occur even when the job to be done is minimal and could be very disastrous.

Accident Investigation

The rationale behind investigation of accidents is to determine the causes of such with a view of preventing a reoccurrence, gather data for use in any criminal or civil proceedings, to enable confirm or refuse of a claim or injuries benefit and paper notifications to be made to enforcing agency. During the investigation of an accident the following should be answered:

What caused the accident
Who was involved in the accident
When did it occur
Whether the person involved was wearing protective clothing
How it could have been prevented
How it will not re-occur

Accident Reporting

Reporting or recording accidents should be a day-to-day thing as the work progresses. On this note, it makes it important for an accident register book to exist on site in which all types of minor injuries such as bruises, to major accidents like imputing disability and fatal be recorded. Death or dangerous injuries should be reported by the quickest means (usually telephone) and subsequently confirmed in writing as soon as possible. The report should state the date and time of the occurrence, full name and occupation of the injured person, the place of the occurrence and a brief description of the circumstance. Below is a format on accident record and information it contains:

Full Name:

Occupation:

Nature of injury/condition:

Place of occurrence:

Date and time:

Brief description of circumstances:

Action taken:

Accident Control

When an accident occur , it only shows that something has gone wrong with one or more process of the job or some elements of carelessness on the part of the workers or an employer has created an unsafe condition of work. Therefore an employer or site supervisor should put in place all necessary prevention or control materials and take control of contributory causes of the accident. The employer or site supervisor should also know the physical and mental state of the workers to be sure of the safety level of the site. In ascertaining a reasonable safety control level, the site supervisor should put into consideration the following:

Supervisor safety analysis-job hazard analysis-enforcement of safety rules-adequate safety knowledge-promotion of employee participation in safety-development of safety working condition
Mental condition of worker
Physical condition of worker

Other measures of accident control as explained by Bokinni (2006) are highlighted below

The work environment

All floors should be clean, not slippery and free from debris
Stairs, gangways and loading bays should be adequately guarded and maintained
Adequate illumination for workspace
Holes, edges and opening should be adequately protected.
Display of standard warning signs where hazard exists
Materials and components should be stacked correctly
Projecting objects or obstacles should be adequately protected.

Protective clothing

Provision of protective clothing and equipment are as well important. For safety purpose, workers on a construction site should be adequately protected using the following clothing or/and equipment

Safety helmets
Safety boots
Welding shields
Vision goggles
Waist safety belts for ladders
Industrial gloves.
Green welder’s gauntlet
Dust mask
Ear defenders etc.

First Aid

Keech (2009) defines First aid as an immediate skilled treatment given to a victim of an injury or accident before the service of an expert is at hand. For safety purposes on a construction site, a first aid box with all required materials must be present. A well enlightened person about safety should be in charge of the first aid box to administer treatment in case of accident. A record of accidents and causes should be kept by the person in charge of the box to ensure such does not re-occur and materials administered should be recorded as well.

Steps in administering first aid

Diagnosis of the accident.
Treatment
Removal of casualties to their homes or hospital.

Occupational Health, Safety and Environment in Construction Sites

Occupational Health is the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations.

At the construction workplaces the workers are exposed to hazards of occupational diseases and injuries and the adverse effects of excessively long hours of work. Machines, plants and other sophisticated construction equipment pose danger to the operators, who in most cases do not have prior skills for operating such machines or plants. Occupational health services should be concerned with the preventive measures laid down to guide the employers, the workers and their representatives on the requirements for a safe healthy working environment. Workers should be assigned duties in relation to their physical and mental health and skills. Further, employers should have complete control over their employees and therefore ensure adherence to safety practices. The company must comply with all provisions of safety and health regulations that pertain to the construction works itself.

Occupational Health, Safety Programmes

Safety program on a project is set by the prime contractor’s project manager who maps out a program of safety measures commensurate with the size of the project and the conditions and hazards peculiar to it. (Mishra, 2011). Programs for construction safety according to Mishra (2011) include:

Adequate first aid facilities and trained personnel and Safety committee comprising of key personnel –supervisors, safety personnel and company doctor.
Disaster control programs, which should be maintained bya qualified personnel.
Crew leaders who hold brief meetings with workers under their supervisor at least once a week to discuss the safety operation of their crew and workers, and specific problems (held after the safety committee meeting).
Safety instructions given to all new workers as part of their introduction
Special mass safety meetings called by the project engineer (all workers attend this meeting).
Safety devices designed to prevent injury and accidents during building and road construction works.
Management and supervisors visit the workers and inspect the works and participate in the safety programs periodically.
Evaluation and review of programs as required by changing conditions to address new problems that may arise

Objectives of the Programme

According to Bamishile (2004) the programme’s main objectives are listed as follows

To secure the health, safety and welfare of all those who work or visit the work site.
To protect persons other than persons listed above against risk to health and safety arising out of, or in connection with the activities of persons working on the site.
To control the admission into the atmosphere of toxins or offensive substance.
To control the keeping and use of explosion or highly flammable or otherwise dangerous substance.
To control the use on site of substance that may be hazardous to health

Health, Safety and Environment Training

In order to promote safety awareness on maintenance site, the operators of the site at all levels should be trained for the safety and health on site. This training programme is to be arranged at least once every month and must be compulsory for all site operators.

The issues to be treated are listed below;

Causes of accidents
Cost of accidents
Accident preventions
Health and safety regulations
Duties and responsibilities of participants
Emergency procedures
Machine and equipment testing, inspection and maintenance

Tools Used in Health, Safety and Environmental Administration

Health and safety register
Health and safety briefing sessions
Minutes of meeting of health and safety committee.
Dates and names of participants of health and training programme.

Health, Safety and Environmental Committee

This is a committee that ensures a reduced level of risks to health and safety on site and it comprises of:

Senior Project Manager – Chairman/ Safety Manager.
Project Manager – Secretary
Project Supervisor – Member
Scaffold Supervisor – Member

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