Socio-economic implications of oil bunkering and carbon pollution on the Nigerian society

Introduction

In recent years, there has been increased concern in environmental degradation resulting from the activities of bunkers leading to soil degradation, and loss of biological diversity.  One of the major causes of carbon pollution in the environment as identified by Singlimsuwan (2011) is as a result of increased and uncontrolled human activities such as bunkering, different stages of economic development such as agriculture, industries, transportation, and energy generation. He further added carbon pollution is basically as a result of uncontrolled carbon emission in the form of carbon (iv) oxide and carbon (ii) oxide by  stemming from the burning of fossil fuels during consumption of solid, liquid, and gas fuels and gas flaring.

As described by Gaber (2011), the activities of bunkers has led to increased environmental damage due to greater use of natural resources, more emission of carbon pollutants, the operation of less efficient and relatively “dirty technologies”, and disregard for the environmental consequences of growth. The effects of carbon emissions have been devastating, affecting both the environment and human beings inhabiting the environment. The outbreak of various environmental hazards as a result of the changes in environmental temperature or atmospheric imbalance as a result of carbon pollution in recent years is alarming. Such hazards include, among others, the recurrent droughts, flood and cyclones, decline of some plant and animal populations, spread of diseases vectors, reduction in food production, increase in death rate and threat to sustainable development (Grossman, 2009).

Essien (2008) stated that in Nigeria, the activities of bunkers have, in the last 50 years, contributed to an increase in carbon emissions and the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leading to the enhanced greenhouse effect, which in turn is expected to result in climate change, arguably the most important and dangerous, and certainly the most complex global environmental issue today.

Conceptual framework

Carbon emission resulting from the uncontrolled activities of bunkers lead to pollution of the environment. Pollution in the form of the uncontrolled release of gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, ground-level ozone, particulate matter (including things like soot, dust, asbestos fibres, pesticides, and metals), and lead (Essien, 2008).

The activities of bunkers are also the principal source of gaseous hydrocarbons pollution which combines with nitrogen oxides in sunlight to create ozone which is important for blocking ultraviolet rays in the upper atmosphere, which is a key component of urban smog and creates human health problems when present in the lower atmosphere (Garber, 2011).

Indiscriminate and poor management of crude oil and its refined products by bunkers are considered the chief causes of global warming. Excess amounts of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane and other gases trap heat in the atmosphere and create the greenhouse effect. Methane gas is also emitted whenever indiscriminately when crude oil is extracted, transported, refined, or stored by bunkers.

Causes of bunkering activities in Nigeria

There are so many causes of bunkering activities in Nigeria. Some of these are:

1. Pervasive poverty

The pervasive poverty in Nigeria, and in the Niger Delta region in particular, appears to be a major contributory factor why some people engage in bunkering activities. As oil companies continued to undermine the environment in the Niger Delta region, people’s livelihoods were destroyed, the basic needs of the communities remained unattended, causing tension to build-up over the years, climaxing in armed militancy and other criminalized behaviour such as hostage taking, vandalizing of pipelines and bunkering (Oshita, 2009). The massive environmental degradation in some parts of the Niger Delta often deprives the people the opportunity to continue to practice their traditional occupations such as fishing and farming. This leads to increasing poverty among the coastal communities. Consequently, some people within these communities where oil pipelines criss-crossed engage in criminal act of busting oil pipelines in order to scoop oil for sale for the purpose of economic survival. Thus, Yusuf (2015) observed that at the centre of the crisis of pipeline vandalism is the issue of poverty. This criminal act of rupturing oil and gas pipelines aggravates the problem of oil spillage, environmental degradation and carbon pollution.

2. Corruption and sabotage in the oil sector

The rampant cases of corrupt practices in the Nigerian society, and in oil industry in particular, contributed to the incessant oil bunkering activities in Nigeria.  It is widely believed that some unscrupulous elements within the oil industry aid and abate pipelines vandalism, oil theft and oil bunkering. For instance, Asu (2016) reported that “some people within NNPC would collude with the vandals whom they alerted whenever products were being pumped into the pipelines”. Similarly, Oshita (2009) observed that the corruption in the sector encouraged oil thieves to blossom, making illegal bunkering a thriving business involving powerful people in and outside government.

3. The problem of unemployment

Unemployment appears to be the major factor that compels some people to take to criminal activities, including oil pipeline vandalism, oil theft and bunkering as a means for economic survival. Unemployment has been very widespread in the country over the years. Consequently, thousands of educated graduates from tertiary institutions have not been able to secure gainful employment. Many of the unemployed were highly educated youths with relevant knowledge and technical skills. Without gainful employment or legitimate means of livelihood, some unscrupulous elements among them could take to pipeline vandalism, oil theft and oil bunkering as “business” of choice (Olatunji, 2015).

The frightening state of unemployment has increased the incidences of pipeline vandalism especially in the creeks and other areas not easily accessible to security operatives. The NNPC 2015 Working Report stated that in the last five years, the problem of pipeline vandalism, oil theft and oil bunkering appeared to be getting worse in the Niger Delta, as many as 5,280 oil wells are linked by 7000 kilometres of pipelines and are vulnerable to attacks by organized gangs (Okere, 2016).

4. International dimension of pipeline vandalism in Nigeria

There is certainly the international dimension of pipeline vandalism, oil theft and bunkering in the Niger Delta region, the hub of Nigeria’s oil industry. This has resulted in the emergence of illegal oil bunkering as an economic activity. Consequently, this has given rise to a complicated network involving the activities of pipeline vandals, oil thieves and illegal oil bunkerers in the Niger Delta. Many vandals engage in pipeline vandalisation and oil theft for the purpose of scooping crude oil for sale to oil syndicates on international market (Tamuno, 2011).

5. The establishment of illegal refineries in the Niger Delta

The establishment of illegal refineries otherwise known as “bush” or “artisanal” refineries is a major factor that has encouraged the incessant rupturing of crude oil pipelines for scooping oil for the illegal refineries and bunkering. Historically, the Niger Delta environment is made up of numerous creeks and undulating landscape characterized by mangrove swamp forests. There are over 33, 000 creeks in the region (Olaniyi, 2015). The numerous creeks and mangrove vegetation pose serious challenge in terms of accessibility especially for those who are not familiar with the environment.

6. Oil and gas infrastructure security challenges

The incessant vandalisation of oil and gas installations has shown that the security of these critical national assets has become a major security challenge. It has not been easy securing the oil and gas installations across the country. The incessant oil and gas infrastructure, vandalism, oil theft and bunkering in the country indicates that, perhaps, as a result of difficult terrain, inadequate personnel and logistics it has not been possible to secure the long distance traversed by pipelines and locations of some vital oil facilities.

7. Political dimension of pipeline vandalism in Nigeria

Pipeline vandalism and oil theft in the Niger Delta region can be traced to the evolution of militancy and struggle for resource control in the region. The militant activities according to Amaize (2016) are essentially political actions directly against Nigerian state and multi-national oil companies aimed at creating greater awareness about the environmental degradation in the Niger Delta region. It also served as a pressure point for the purpose of ultimately compelling the government to improve the socio-economic conditions of the people of the Niger Delta region.

8. Frosty relationship between the Niger Delta communities and oil companies

The incessant pipeline vandalism and bunkering activities in the Niger Delta region has been attributed to the frosty relationship between the host communities in the Niger Delta and the multi-national oil companies operating in the region. Eboh (2016) pointed out that one of the reasons for the frosty relationship between the host communities and the oil companies was “the impoverished nature of the host communities; the poor infrastructure and increasing unemployment among the youths in the communities”. Those members of the community who felt short changed sometimes resorted to pipeline vandalism, oil theft and bunkering.

Carbon pollution resulting from bunkering activities

Isiguzo and Okunbor (2013) stated that the activities of bunkers are usually carried out using crude technologies giving rise to incriminate release of carbon pollutant into the atmosphere. Notably among these pollutants are:

• Carbon (II) oxide
• Carbon (IV) oxide
• Methane gas

1. Carbon (II) oxide:

Carbon (II) oxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air. It is toxic to man and animals when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm (part per million). It plays a vital role in the formation of ground-level ozone. Carbon (II) oxide is produced from the partial oxidation of carbon-containing compounds. This is produced indiscriminately by the uncontrolled processes of bunkers above the allowable quantity leading to carbon monoxide poisoning (Ekpu, 2007).

2. Carbon (IV) oxide

Carbon dioxide is a colourless and odourless gas vital to life on earth. This naturally occurring chemical compound is made up of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. Carbon dioxide exists in Earth’s atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent (400 ppm) by volume. Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water, it occurs naturally in groundwater, rivers and lakes, in ice caps and glaciers and also in seawater. It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas (Isiguzo & Okunbor, 2013).

Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread, beer and winemaking. It is produced by combustion of wood, carbohydrates and fossil fuels such as coal, peat, petroleum and natural gas. Carbon dioxide is a significant greenhouse gas. The indiscriminate and uncontrolled release of carbon (IV) oxide by the activities of bunkers has rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. It is also a major cause of ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (Isiguzo & Okunbor, 2013).

• Methane gas

Methane is the relative abundance component of petroleum which in most cases poses challenges in terms is storage due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure. In its natural state, methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor. When it finds its way to the surface and the atmosphere, it is known as atmospheric methane (Isiguzo & Okunbor, 2013).

Methane is nontoxic, yet it is extremely flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is violently reactive with oxidizers, halogen, and some halogen-containing compounds. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below about 16% by displacement, as most people can tolerate a reduction from 21% to 16% without ill effects. The concentration of methane at which asphyxiation risk becomes significant is much higher than the 5–15% concentration in a flammable or explosive mixture which leads to gas explosions among bunkers (Asu, 2016).

Implications of carbon pollution

Carbon emissions contribute to climate change, which can have serious consequences for humans and their environment. According to Sanglimsuwan (2011), carbon emissions, in the form of carbon dioxide, make up more than 80 percent of the greenhouse gases emitted in the atmosphere. The burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. These carbon emissions raise global temperatures by trapping solar energy in the atmosphere. This alters water supplies and weather patterns, changes the growing season for food crops and threatens coastal communities with increasing sea levels.

Among other implications, Solden and Song (2014) stated that carbon pollution leads to the following consequences:

• Shrinking water supplies
• Increasing incidents of severe weather
• Changes in food supply
• Geographical changes

1. Shrinking water supplies

Carbon dioxide persists in the atmosphere for 50 to 200 years, so emissions released now will continue to warm the climate in the future. Moore, Gould and Keary (2008) predicted that climate change will cause the demand for water to increase while the supply of water shrinks. Water is not only essential to human health but also to manufacturing processes and the production of energy and food. Climate change is expected to increase rainfall in some areas, thereby causing an increase in the sediment and pollutants washed into drinking water supplies. Rising sea levels will cause saltwater to infiltrate some freshwater systems, increasing the need for desalination and drinking water treatment (Moore et al., 2008).

2.Increasing incidents of severe weather

Global warming has the potential to result in more wildfires, droughts and tropical storms. The destruction of infrastructure causes several human health issues, including disease transmitted when water and sewer systems are not working properly. The storms themselves and the damage to infrastructure they cause often result in a tremendous loss of human life (Garber, 2011).

3.Changes in food supply

Changing weather affects the agricultural industry and the human food supply. Carbon emissions contribute to increasing temperatures and decreasing precipitation, changing the growing conditions for food crops in many areas. According Essien (2008), carbon emissions are causing warming in the atmosphere that is projected to significantly reduce the yields of tomatoes, wheat, rice, maize and sunflowers in this region. Major changes in crop yield will cause food prices to rise around the world. In addition, climate change influenced by carbon emissions forces animals, many of which are hunted as food, to migrate to higher altitudes or northern habitats as the climate warms.

4.Geographical changes

It takes only a small change in temperature to have enormous environmental effects; temperatures at the end of the last ice age were only cooler than today’s temperatures by 2.5 to 5 degrees Celsius. This slight change can have dramatic effects on shorelines, especially those densely populated by humans where rising sea levels flood buildings and roads and influence shipping traffic (Seldon & Song, 2014).

Socio-economic implications of oil bunkering on the Nigerian society

The socio-economic implication of oil bunkering on the Nigerian society includes the following:

1. Oil bunkering activities represents a serious sabotage to the effort of the federal government to achieve stable and sustainable power supply in the country since it encourages pipeline vandalisation. This was said to have resulted in acute shortage of gas to gas-fired generating turbines. The Minister of Power, Works and Housing, Mr. Babatunde Fashola was reported to have stated that out of 140 gas-fired generating turbines in the country, only 50 were functional (Nnodim, 2016). Thus, the vandalisation of oil pipelines plunged many parts of the country in darkness.
2. Pipeline vandalism, oil theft, oil bunkering and other related crimes have worsened the problem of social insecurity in the Niger Delta region. The situation has exposed many oil workers to grave danger. Most of the oil companies facilities had been vandalized and the worsening security situation compelled some staff to relocate, thus hindering effective performance of the companies (Onoyume, 2016).
3. Oil bunkering and pipeline vandalism has seriously disrupted the smooth distribution of petroleum products across the country. Consequently, petroleum products such as gas, fuel and kerosene could not be adequately supplied through the depots, thus, leaving the depots in a state of moribund. This has given rise to the perennial problem of fuel scarcity in the country (Asu, 2016).
4. Pipeline vandalism and oil theft have resulted in increasing loss of the nation’s revenue which could have accrued from the sale of crude oil on international market (Yusuf, 2016)
5. Also, pipeline vandalism and oil bunkering has been partly responsible for the inability of the NNPC to consistently meet its contractual obligations to its international trading partners with regard to the supply of natural gas (Yusuf, 2016).
6. In addition, oil bunkering and pipeline vandalism is a major threat to the safety of critical national assets especially those pertaining to oil industry. Pipeline vandalism and oil theft were said to be largely responsible for the collapse of national grid in May 2016.
7. It is also a major cause of environmental degradation in the Niger Delta communities. Pipelines vandalism contributes to the environmental pollution often associated with oil spillage. As the vandals bust oil pipelines, a large quantity of crude oil spills on the land surface and consequently degrades the environment. This ultimately impoverishes the people as it destroys the arable land, vegetation, the bio-diversity as well as aquatic lives which constitute the main sources of the economic survival of the people.
8. Pipeline vandalism and oil bunkering has resulted not only in colossal waste of national resources, but also in human tragedies involving loss of lives. The NNPC Group Managing Director, Dr. Ibe Kachikwu has observed that beyond the loss of crude oil and finished products, the incident of pipeline vandalism and oil theft have also claimed a huge number of human lives. He lamented that over the last three years no fewer than 350 persons, including NNPC workers had been killed as a result of the activities of oil thieves (Ofikhenua, 2015).

Measures to combat bunkering activities in Nigeria

Ofikhenua (2015) suggested measures to combat bunkering activities in Nigeria which include:

1. There is need for more consultations and negotiations among stakeholders in the Niger Delta region where oil bunkering activities is very paramount. The Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC), Traditional rulers of Oil Mineral Producing Communities (TROMCON), Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), the Joint Task Force (JTF) and youth leaders in the region. Their interactions will be with a view to identifying the real cause of this monumental economic sabotage and to proffer solutions.
2. The Presidential Amnesty Office should coordinate the reintegrate and training programmes for former agitators in the region to properly get the restive youths constantly reintegrated into its programme.
3. Government at the federal and state levels should also continue show greater concern on the plight of riverine communities who are desperately lacking basic amenities such as roads, portable water, schools, hospitals, among others.
4. There is the need for the NNPC and other stakeholders to urgently invest in and deploy digital system of surveillance, including drones, which has the capacity to detect and report anywhere pipelines are tampered with.
5. Finally, relevant government agencies must engage in sensitisation of citizens against wilful destruction and oil bunkering as well as the consequences of oil bunkering.

References

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