Domestic violence/wife battering and its impact on women’s health

Introduction

According to Hornby (2010) violent behaviour is that behaviour which is intended to hurt or kill somebody. It is also regarded as the use of physical force to cause injury, damage or death. Domestic violence also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, family violence and intimate partner violence can be broadly defined as a pattern of abusive behaviours by one or both partners in an intimate relationship such as manage family, friends or cohabitation. Most feminist, who discussing gender violence, want to talk only about men’s violence against women, if a feminist does not dragged into a debate on women’s savagery toward man, she is likely to argue that the female who harm a man does so almost always because the man provoked her.

Hegnie (2006) said that most causes of child abused and 70% of child death apart from those that are causes by illness are resulting from female violence. The female percentage was 20 percent in 1930 and 69 percent in (2003). Nwaneri (2012) observed that one in every four school girls had fought at least once during a year period. Statistics also shows number of arrest of teens over unrest and violence.

He went further to say that 1 out of 4 violent episode are being perpetrated by teen girls, up from just a generation ago when it’s, when 1 girl – 10 boys. As can be seen, girls violence is increasing from 1-10 and now 1 out of every 4 violent episode involves girls carrying it out.

Wife battering has many forms including physical aggression such as hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, slapping, throwing of objects or threats, name calling thereof, sexual abuse, emotion, oral abuse, controlling or domineering, intimidation, stalking, passive/convert abuse e.g. neglect and economic deprivation, alcohol consumption, mental illness can be with abuse, and present additional challenges when present alongside.

Johnson (2006) claimed that the term Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is often used synonymously with domestic abuse and violence. Family violence is a broader definition, often used to include child abuse, elder’s abuse and other violence acts between family members.

He went further to say that women are considered by their attackers as lacking the basic right of freedom, respect and power of decision both men and women have been arrested and convicted of assaulting their partners.

In the United States according to the Bureau of Justice statistics in 1995, women reported a six times greater rate of intimate partner violence than men. However, studies have found that men are much less likely to report victimization in those situations. One analysis found that women are more likely to be injured. Found that women suffer 65% of domestic violence injuries. A comedian study showed that 7% of women and 6% of men are abused by the current or former partners but female victims of spousal violence were more than twice as male victims, three times more likely, times to fear for their life, twice as likely to experience more than ten incidents of violence, Campbell (1993) suggests that women express violence in response to stress and frustration.

Conceptual framework

Wife battering seems as domestic violence, also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, family violence and intimate partner violence. Wikipedia, the free Encyclopaedia (2011) defined domestic violence as a pattern in an intimate relationship such as marriage, dating, family, friends or cohabitation. It went further to say that domestic violence has many forms including physical aggression (hitting, kicking, biting shaving, retraining, slapping, throwing objects) or threats therefore sexual abuse, emotional abuse, controlling or domineering, intimidation, stalking, passive/covert abuse (e.g. neglect), and economic deprivation on:

1. Alcohol consumption
2. Mental illness
3. Can be co-morbid with abuse, and present additional challenges when present alongside

The term intimate partner violence according to Wikipedia (2011) is often used synonymously with domestic abuse/domestic violence, family violence is a broader definition, often used to include child abuse, elder abuse and violent acts between family members, wife abuse, wife beating, and battering are descriptive terms that have lost popularity recent for at least two reasons.

1. Acknowledge that many victims are not actually married to the abuser but rather cohabiting or other arrangement.
2. Abuse can take other forms than physical abuse and males are often victims of violence as well. Other forms of abuse of may be constantly occurring, while physical abuse happens occasionally.

These other forms of abuse have the potential to lead to mental illness, self-barium and even attempt at suicide

Classification of wife battering

According to Johnson (2006), all forms of domestic abuse have one purpose; to gain and maintain control over the victims. Abuse uses many tactics to exert power over their spouse or partner; dominance, humiliation, isolation, threats, intimidation, denial and blame.

The term and characteristics of domestic violence and abuse may vary in other ways. Johnson argues for three major types of wife battering supported by subsequent research and evaluation by Johnson and his colleagues, as well as independent researches.

Michael (1995) stated that distinction need to be made regarding types of violence, motives of perpetrators, and the social and cultural context. Violence by a person against their intimate partner is often done as a way for controlling their partners even if this kind of violence is not the most frequent. Other types of intimate partner violence also occur, including violence between gay and lesbian couples and by women against their male partners.

Distinctions are not based on single incidents, but rather on partners across numerous incidents and motives of the perpetrator. Types of violence indentified by Johnson are;

1. Common couple violent is not connected to general control behaviour, but arises in single argument where one or both partners physically lash out at the other.
2. Intimate terrorism is one element in a general pattern of control by one partner over the other; intimate terrorism is more common than common couple violence more likely to escalate over time, not as likely to be mutual and more likely to involve serious injury.

Types of wife battering

According to Holtzworth-Minor and Stuart (1994), wife battering include the following;

• Physical abuse
• Sexual abuse
• Emotional abuse
• Verbal abuse
• Economic abuse

And they went further to explain each below:

1. Physical abuse: Is abuse involving contact intended to cause feeling of intimidation, pain, injury, or other physical suffering or bodily harm.
2. Sexual abuse: It is any situation in which force is used to obtain participation in unwanted sexual activity forced sex, even by spouse or intimate partner with whom consensual sex has occurred, is an act of aggression and violence. Categories of sexual abuse include use of physical force to compel a person to engage in sexual act against his or her will, whether or not the act is completed. Attempted or completed sexual act involving a person who is unable to decline participation, or unable to communicate, unwillingness to engage in the sexual act, e.g. because of under age, immaturity, illness, disability or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or because of intimidation or pressure (Dutton, 1994).
3. Emotional abuse: Emotional abuse also called physiological abuse can include humiliating victim privately or publicly controlling what the victim can and cannot do. Withholding information from the victim deliberately doing something to make the victim feel diminished or embarrassed, isolating the victims from friends and family, implicitly, blackmailing the victims by harming others when the victim expresses independence or happiness, or denying the victim access to money or other basic resources and necessities.

Emotional/verbal abuse is defined as any behaviour that threatens, in dimidiates, undermines the victim’s self-worth or self esteem, or controls the victims’ freedom (Laroche, 2004). This can include threatening the victim with injury or harm, emotional abuse includes forceful efforts to isolate the victim, keeping them from contacting friends or family. This is intended to eliminate those who might try to help the victim leave the relationship and to create a lack of resources for them to rely on if they were to leave. Isolation result in damaging victim’s sense of internal strength, leaving them feeling helpless and unable to escape from the situation. People who are being emotionally abuse often feel as if they do not own themselves, rather, they may feel that their significant other has nearly total control over them. Women or men undergoing emotional abuse often suffer from depression which them at increased risk for suicide eating disorders, and drug and alcohol abuse.

4. Verbal abuse: Is a form of abusive behaviour involving the use of language. It is a form of profanity that can occur with or without the use of expletives. Abusers may ignore ridicule, disrespect and criticize others consistently; manipulate words, purposefully humiliate; falsely accuse, manipulate people to submit to undesirable behaviour, make others feel unwanted and unloved; threaten economically; place the blame and cause of the abuse on others; isolate victims from support systems, harass; demonstrate juicily and Hyde behaviours, either in terms of sudden rages or behavioural changes, or where there is a very different “face shown to the outside world with victim. While oral communication is the most common form of verbal abuse’ it includes abusive words in written form.
5. Economic abuse: Is when the abuse has control over the victim’s money and other economic resources. In its extreme (and usual) form, this involves putting the victims on a strict allowance, withholding money at will and forcing the victim to beg for the money until the abuse gives them some money. It is common for the victim to receive less money as the abuse continues. This also includes (but is not limited to) preventing the victim from finishing education or obtaining employment, or internationally squandering or misusing communal resources.

Causes of wife battering

According to Goode (1971) there are many different theories as to the causes of domestic violence. These include the following;

• Psychological
• Behavioural
• Social theories
• Resource theory
• Social stress
• Social learning theory
• Power and control
• Mental illness

He went further to explain the following below:

1. Psychological: In general, about 80% of both court-referred and self- referred men in these domestic violence studies exhibited diagnosable psychopathology, typically personality disorders. The estimate of personality disorder in the general population would be more the 15-20% range. As violence become more severe and chronic in the relationship, likelihood of psychopathology theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender’s personality traits include sudden bursts of anger, poor impulse control and poor self-esteem. Various theories suggest that psychopathology and other personality disorders are factors and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Studies have found high incidence of psychopathy among abusers. Dutton (1994) suggested a psychological profile of men who abuse their wives, arguing that they have borderline personalities that are developed early in life. Gelles suggested that psychological theories are limited, and point out that, other researchers have found that only 10% (or less) hit this psychological profile. He urges are important while personality traits, mental illness or psychopathy are lesser factors.
2. Behavioural: Behavioural theories draw on the work of behaviour analysts. Applied behaviour analysis uses the basic principles of learning theory to change behaviour. Behaviour theories of domestic violence focus on the use of functional assessment with the goal of reducing episodes of violence to zero rates. This program leads to behaviour therapy. Often by identifying the antecedents and consequences of violent action, the abuser can be thought self control. Recently more focus has been placed on prevention and a behaviour theory.
3. Social theories: Looks at external factors in the offender’s environment, such as family structure, stress, and social learning, and includes rational choice theories.
4. Resource theory: Resources theory was suggested by Goode (1971). Women who are most dependent on the spouse for economic well being (e.g. home makers/house wives, women with handicaps, the unemployed) and are the primary giver to their children, fear the increased financial burden if the leave their marriage. Dependency means that they have fewer options and few resources to help them cope with or change their spouse’s behaviour. Couples that share power equally experience lower incidence and when conflict does arises, are less likely to resort to violence. If one spouse desires control and power in the relationship, the spouse may resort to abuse. This may include coercion and threats, intimidation. Emotional abuse, economic abuse, isolation making light of the situation and blaming the spouse using children (threatening to take them away), and behaving as “master of the castle”.
5. Social stress: Stress may be increased when a person is living in a family situation, with increased pressures. Social stresses, due to inadequate finance or other such problem in a family may further increase tensions. Violence is not ways caused by dread but may be one way that some people respond to stress. Family and couples in poverty may be more likely to experienced domestic violence, due to increased stress and conflicts about finance and other aspects. Some speculate that poverty may hinder a man’s ability to live his ideals of successful manhood “thus he fears losing honour and respect”. Theory suggested that when he is unable to be economically support his wife, and maintain control, he may turn to misogyny, substance abuse, and crime as ways to express masculinity.
6. Social learning theory: Social learning theories suggest that people learn from observing and modelling after others behaviour, with positive reinforcement, the behaviour continues. If one observes violent behaviour, one is likely to imitate it. If there is no negative consequences e.g. victims accepts the violence, with submission), then the behaviour will likely continue. Often violence is transmitted from one generation to another in a cyclical manner.
7. Power and control: in some relationships, violence is posited to arise out of perceived need for power and control form of bullying and social learning of abuse. Abuser’s effort to dominate their partners have been attributed to low self- esteem or feeling of inadequacy, unresolved childhood conflicts the stress of poverty, hostility and resentment towards women (misogyny), personality disorders, genetic tendencies and social cultural influences, among other possible causative factors. Most authorities result from a combination of several factors, to varying degrees. A causality view of domestic violence is that it is a strategy to gain or maintain power and control over the victim. This view is in alignment with “Ben Croft’s: cost-benefits” theory that abuse rewards the perpetrator in ways other than, or in additional to simply exercising power over his or her argument that, in most cases, abuses are quite capable of exercising control over themselves, but choose not to do so for various reasons (Graham & Archer, 2003). An alternative view is that abuse arises from powerlessness and externalizing/projecting this and attempting to exercise control or maintain power and control over the victim but even in achieving this it cannot resolve the powerlessness driving it. Such behaviour has addictive aspects leading to a cycle of abuse of violence. Mutual cycles develop when each party attempts to resolve their own powerlessness in attempting to assert control. Question of power and control are integral to the widely utilized Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention Project. They develop power and control wheel” to illustrates this. It has power and control at the centre surrounded by Coercion and threats, intimidation, emotional abuse, isolation, minimizing, denying and blaming, using children, economical abuse, male privilege, etc. The model attempts to address abuse by one sided challenging the misuse of power by the perpetrator. The power wheel model is not intended to assign personal responsibility, enhance respect for mutual purpose or assist victims and perpetrators in resolving their differences. It is an informational tool designed to help individuals understand the dynamics of power operating in abusive situations and identifying various methods at abuse. Critics of this model suggest that the one sided focus, which presumes men are to blame for all domestic violence, is problematic.
8. Mental illness: Psychiatric disorders are sometimes associated with domestic violence, like Borderline personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, Bipolar disorder, Schizophrenia, drug abuse and alcoholism. In past medical knowledge, untreated attention Deficit hyperactive Disorder and conduct disorders in childhood was associated with domestic violence in adulthood.

Effects of wife battering

According to Pizzey (1993), there are many effects of wife battering which include

• Physical
• Psychological
• Financial
• Long-term
• Burnout

He went further to explain each below;

1. Physical: Bruises, broken bones, head injuries, lacerations, and internal bleeding are some of the acute effects of domestic violence incidence that require medical attention and hospitalization. Some chronic health conditions that have been linked to victims of domestic violence are arthritis, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic, pain, pelvic pain, ulcers, and migraines. Victims who are pregnant during a domestic violence relationship experience greater risk of miscarriage, pre term labour, injury to or death of the foetus.
2. Psychological: Among victims who are still living with their perpetrators, high amounts of tress, tear, and anxiety are commonly reported. Depression is also common, as victims are made to feel guilty for provoking the abuse and are constantly subjected to intense criticism. It is reported that 60% of victims meets the diagnostic criteria or depression either during or after termination of the relationship and have a greatly increased risk suicide. In addition to depression, victims of domestic violence also commonly experience love- term anxiety and panic, are likely to meet the diagnostic criteria for generalized.
3. Anxiety and panic disorder: The most commonly referenced psychological effects of domestic violence are post-traumatic stress disorder (PSTD). PSTD (as experienced by victims) is characterized by flashbacks, instructive images, exaggerated startle responses, night mares and avoidance of triggers that are associated with the abused. These symptoms are generally experienced for a long span of time after the victims have left the dangerous situation. Many researchers state that PSTD is possibly the best diagnosis for those suffering from psychological effects of domestic violence, as it accounts for the varieties of symptoms commonly experienced by victims’ trauma.
4. Financial: Once victims leave their perpetrators, they can be stunned with the reality of the extent to which the abuse has taken away their autonomy. Due to economic abuse and also isolation, the victims usually have very little money of their own and few people on whom they can when seeking help. This has been shown to be one of the greatest obstacles facing victims of domestic violence, and the strongest factor that can discourage them from leaving their perpetrators. In addition to lacking financial resources, victims of domestic violence, often lack specialized skills, education and training that are necessary to find gainful employment and also may have several children to support. In 2003, 36 major US Cities sited domestic violence as one of the primary causes of homelessness in their areas. It has also been reported that one out of every 3 homeless women are homeless due to having left domestic violence relationship. If a victim is able to secure rental housing, it is likely that her apartment complex will have “zero tolerance policy for crime”, these policies can cause them to face eviction even if they are the victims (not the perpetuators) of violence. While the number of shelters and community resources available to domestic violence victims has grown tremendously, these agencies have often few employees and hundreds of victims seeking assistance which causes many victims to remain without the assistance they need.
5. Long-term: Domestic violence can trigger many different responses in victims, all of which are very relevant for any professional working with a victim. Major consequences of domestic violence victimization include psychological/mental health issues and chronic physical health problems. A victim over whelming lack of resources can lead to homelessness and poverty. Due to the gravity and intensity of hearing beating stories of abuse, professionals (police, counsellors, therapists, advocate, medical doctors, etc) are at risks themselves for secondary or vicarious trauma (VT) which causes the responder to experience trauma symptoms similar to the original victim after hearing about the victims experience with abuse. According to Wikipedia, research has demonstrated that signs of exaggerated startle responses, hyper-vigilance, nightmares, and incisive thoughts although they have not experiences a trauma personally and do not qualify for a clinical diagnosis of PTSD. Beseechers contributed that although clinicians have professional training and are equipped with the necessary clinical skills to assist victims of domestic violence, they may still be personally affected by the victims’ traumatic experiences. Lliffe et al., found that there are several common initial responses that are found in clinicians who work with victims, loss of confidence in their ability to help the client, taking personal responsibility for ensuring the client safety, and remaining supportive of the client’s autonomy if they make the decision to return to their perpetrator. It has also been shown that clinicians who work with large number of victims may after their former perceptions of the world, and begin to doubt the basic goodness of others Lliffe et al., found that clinicians work with victims tend to feel less secured in the world, because “acutely aware of power and control issues both in society and in their own personal relationships, have difficulty trusting others, and experience and increased awareness of gender based power differences in society. The best way for a clinician to avoid developing VT is to engage in good self-care practice. These can include exercise, relaxation techniques, debriefing with colleagues and seeking support from supervisors. Additionally, it is recommended that clinicians make the positive and rewarding aspects of working with domestic violence victims the primary focus of though and energy, such as a being part of the healing process or helping society as a whole. Clinicians could also continually evaluate their empathic responses to victims, in order to avoid feelings of being drawn into the trauma that the victim experienced. It is recommended that clinicians practice good boundaries and find at balance in expressing empathic responses to the victim while still maintaining personal detachment from their traumatic experiences.

5)      Burnout: Vicarious trauma can lead directly to burnout. According to Caney (2007) defined it as “emotional exhaustion resulting from excursive demands of energy, strengths and personal resources in the work setting. The physical warning signs of burnout include headaches, fatigue, lowered immune function, and irritability. A clinician’s experiencing burnout may begin to loss interest in the welfare of clients, be unable to emphasize or feel compassion for client and even begin to feel aversion toward the client. If the clinician experience burnout is working with victims of domestic violence, the clinician risk causing further great harm through re-victimization of the client. It should be noted; however that vicarious trauma does not always directly lead to burnout and that burnout can occur in clinicians who work with any difficult population — not only those who work with domestic violence victims. In a metal-analysis, John (2000), from the Department of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, UK, writes; The present analysis indicates that men are among those who are likely to be on the receive end of acts of physical aggression. The extent to which this involves mutual combat or the male equivalent to battered women is at present unresolved. Both situations are causes for concern. Straw (1997) has warned of dangers involved – especially for women when physical aggression becomes a routine response to relationship conflict. Battered men – those subjected to systematic and prolonged violence are likely to suffer physical, psychological consequences, together with specific problems associated with a lack of recognition of their plight (George & George, 1998) seeking to address these problems need to detract from continuing to address the problems of battered women.

Control of wife battering

According to Flood and Kimmel (2002), measures to control wife battering include:

1. To create awareness of wife battering
2. To create awareness on the existing knowledge about the health implications of wife battering.
3. To enlighten the people on the causes of wife battering.
4. To enlighten the people of the effects of wife battering.
5. To provide possible ways of controlling the problems.

References

Caney, S. (2007). Common Effects of Domestic Violence in Recent Times.

Centre for Diseases Control and Prevention (2003). Cost of Intimate Partner Violence against Women in United State Atlanta Georgia.

Dutton, D.C. (1994). Patriarchy and Wife Assault: The Ecological Fallacy. Violence and Victims.

Dutton, P. (1994). Secrets of Successful Marriage: New York: Preston Press.

Flood, M. & Kimmel, B. (2002). Common Means of Controlling Wife Battering Journal of Family Life.

Gelles, H. (2011). Domestic Violence in recent times.

George, F. & George, K. (1998). Occurrence and Consequences of Domestic Violence. Marriage Guide.

Goode, W. (1971). Man and Woman Relationship: A Clue Tom Successful Marriage.

Graham, K. N. & Archer, J. (2003). Intimate Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: A Test of Johnson’s Predictions in for British Samples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence.

Holtzworth, K. (1994). Problems of Wife Battering. Violence and Victims

Jane, M. L., Michael, Catherine, L. C. and Susan, E. L. (2004). Consequences of Male Partner Violence for Low-Income Minority Women. Journal of Marriage and Family.

Johnson, M. P. (2006). Conflict and Control: Gender Symmetry and Asymmetry in Domestic Violence. Violence against Women.

Johnson, M. P. & Kathleen, J. F. (2000). Research on Domestic Violence in the 1990s: Making Distinctions. Journal of Marriage and Family.

Kristof, N. D. & Wudum, S. (2009). The Women’s Crusade. The New York Times.

Laroche, D. (2004). Context and Consequences of Domestic Violence against Men and Women in Canada.

Markowitz, S. (2000): The Prince of Alcohol, Wife Abuse and Husband Abuse.

Michael, P. J. (1995). Patriarchal Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: Two Forms of Violence against Women. Journal of Marriage and Family (National Council on Family Relationship).

Pizzey, M. (1993). Problems of Wife Battering and Domestic Violence. Marriage Guide.

Renzetti, C. M. & Miley, C. H. (1996). Violence in Gay and Lesbian Domestic Partnership. Haworth Press.

Rosen, K. H., Stith, S. M., Few, A. L., Daly, K. L. and Tritt, D. R. (2005). A Qualitative Investigation of Johnson’s Typology. Violence and Victims.

Sigler, R. T. (1989). Domestic Violence in Context: An Assessment of Community Attitudes.

Straw, B. (1997): Dangers of Domestic Violence. Family Life Journal.

Waits K. (1985): The Criminal Justice System’s Response to Battering: Understanding the Problem, Forging the Solution.