General

Examination of habitual alcoholism and its implications on the people

Introduction

Habit is an accustomed way of doing things. Habits are said to have three characteristics: (a) they are acquired through repetition (b) they are automatic and (c) they can be performed only under similar circumstances (Park, 2005). He posited that habits accumulated through generations emerge as customs, and customs in turn creates habits. Habits once formed persist and influence human behaviour.

According to him, they are of many kinds, for example habit relating to food, sleep, work, intake of drugs and alcohol, etc. There are both good and bad habits. Good habits promote health; bad habits (for example drug dependence) may ruin health. Therefore, he is of the opinion that cultivation of good habits is desirable. The principles involved in habit formation are:

Habit formation should begin early in childhood, when the individual (child) has not yet formed any habits and is receptive to all influences;
Habits are formed by frequent repetition;
It takes time to form habits, they cannot be formed overnight;
There must be strong emotional stimulus to form habits (for example taking a vow, reward, recognition, etc.);
Good habits is to cultivate good habits

Habits build up human personality. Man must not become a slave to his habits, he should remain a master. From the foregoing, any individual or group of individuals who formed bad habits ruin health. This points to the topic under study, which says habitual alcoholics and its implications. One can precisely deduce from the opinion of Park that habitual alcoholics ruin health. This is because the action of the person (alcoholic) if not moderated and controlled will certainly lead to dependence.

Ethyl alcohol is a psychoactive ingredient in all alcoholic beverages. Beer, a mild intoxicant brewed from a mixture of grains, usually contains 3 – 6% alcohol by volume (Insel and Roth, 2001).

In addition, the duo are of the opinion that the chemistry of alcohol are, ales and malt liquors with 6 – 8% alcohol by volume, while wine are made by fermenting the juices of grapes or other fruits. The concentration of alcohol in table wines is about 9 – 14%. Fortified wines, so named because alcohol has been added to them, contain about 20% alcohol; these include sherry, port and medeira. Stronger alcoholic beverages called liquors are made by distilling brewed or fermented grains or other products. These beverages including gins, whisky, brandy, rum, tequila, vodka and liquors usually contains 35 – 50% alcohol.

They further said that there are a number of different kinds of alcohol. The term alcohol refers to ethyl alcohol, which is the only kind of alcohol that can be consumed. Other kinds of alcohol such as methanol (wood alcohol) and isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) are highly toxic and can cause blindness and other serious problems when consumed even in low doses.

When a person ingest (absorb) alcohol, about 20% is rapidly absorbed from the stomach into the bloodstream. About 75% is absorbed through the upper part of the small intestine. Any remaining alcohol enters the bloodstream further along the gastrointestinal tract (Insel & Roth, 2001).

According to them, the rate of absorption is affected by a variety of factors. For example, the carbonation in a beverage like champagne increases the rate of absorption. Food in the stomach slows the rate of absorption as does the drinking of highly concentrated alcoholic beverages such as hard liquor. It should be noted that all alcohol a person consumes is eventually absorbed.

They also opined that alcohol is quickly transported through the body by the blood. Because alcohol easily moves through most biological membranes, it is rapidly distributed throughout most body tissues. They said that the main site of alcohol metabolism is the liver, though a small amount of alcohol is metabolised in the stomach.

Finally, their view is that about 2 – 10% of ingested alcohol is not metabolised in the liver or other tissues but is excreted unchanged by the lungs, kidneys and sweat glands. Excreted alcohol causes the tell tale smell on a drinker’s breath and is the basis of breath and urine analysis of alcohol level.

Conceptual framework

Park (2005) sees habit as an accustomed way of doing things. Habits are said to have three characteristics

They are acquired through repetition
They are automatic and
They can be performed only under similar circumstances

According to him, habits accumulated through generations emerge as customs and customs in turn create habit. Habits once formed persist and influence behaviour. He further asserts that habits are formed. They are of many kind e.g. habits relating to food, sleep, work, smoking, intake of drugs, and alcohol etc. there are both good and bad habits. Good habits promote health, bad habits e.g. (drug dependence) may ruin health. Therefore cultivation of good habits is desirable. The principles involved in habit formation are;

Habit formation should begin early in childhood, when the child has not yet formed any habits and is receptive to have influence.
Habits are formed by frequent repetition.
It takes time to form habits; they cannot be formed overnight.
There should be a strong emotional stimulus to form habits (e.g. taking a vow, reward, recognition, etc).
Good habits kill bad habits. The best way to break bad habits is to cultivate good habits.

He stated that habits build up human personality. Man should not become a slave to his habits, he should remain a master. It is the job of the psychologist to find out how good habits can be development, and bad ones eliminated.

Frustrations and conflicts

Park (2005) stated that all people have needs-biological, social, economic, which they try to satisfy. When they are unable to meet their needs and desires, they feel frustrated.

The source of frustration may be external e.g. unemployment, failure and defeats or internal e.g. cave of health, lack of intellectual ability etc. Sometimes, according to him, frustration may rouse the individual to form a habit that will develop to higher and bigger effort to overcome failure. The individual may by pass the frustration condition by changing his goals in life. He opined that frustration, if it is allowed to continue, may damage ones personality. This may generate feeling of anger, dejection, withdrawal renew or even attempt at suicide. That is why some people take drugs and alcohol to escape frustration. This view is actually in conformity with the title of the study. From parks view, individuals who are frustrated, tend to form the habits of alcoholic and eventually becomes addicted and habitual in this area.

Davidoff (1980) assert that frustration arises when an obstacle prevents people from doing something they want to or from reaching a goal, need, desire or expectation. She further said that frustration leads to anger, and aggression frequently follows. Among common frustrating and angering situation are; violation of personal expectation or wishes, socially unacceptable behaviour, negligence or carelessness, lack of foresight, and damage to personal pride or self esteem, (Averill, 1982 -1983). The researcher therefore deduced from the above that virtually all the common frustrating and angering situation can lead one to develop habits overtime. A situation whereby this frustration is allowed to continue over a long period of time will crept in the habit of smoking, intake of drugs and alcohols. These eventually become habitual and ruin health. Some psychologists believe that boredom which is frustrating underlies both terrorism and delinquency. The senseless brutality that defines terrorism may be a product of bored (and angry) people looking for some purpose to other wish empty lives. Delinquency may arise in part from a similar source. Too much free time little to do and a high need for stimulation (Farley 1973). Sigmund Freud emphasized the anxiety arousing forces of personal conflict. He felt that human drives often clash with reality (where punishment is a possibility) and the dictates of conscience. Humanistic psychologists also stress personal conflict focusing on those that arise in choosing a fulfilling meaningful life style.

Types of conflicts

Psychologist today catalogue conflict according to the course of action that will resolve them (Lewin, 1959; Miller, 1951), approach-approach. Avoidance-avoidance and single and double approach-avoidance.

Approach-approach conflict occur under two conditions:

People are attracted about equally to two goals (needs, object, and actions). But carrying out one goal means abandoning the other, for example, you have to choose between buying a car and travelling to Europe. On the same night, you want to attend a party and a movie. Research suggests that approach-approach conflicts are easier to resolve than any other type. As you tentatively near one goal (say, a brown sweater on a shopping expedition). Its attractiveness rises. As you emphasize the advantage (it’s warm, it’s cheap), the tendency to draw closer increases. At the same time, the appeal of the other goal (aired sweater, for example) diminishes, it’s pull weakens, and the conflict ends. People generally resolve approach-approach conflicts easily because they always result in something pleasant. Moreover, the alternative can frequently be achieved in turn. You may be able to purchase the red sweater next month.

When a person is simultaneously repeated by two goals (objects actions, or whatever) and obliged to select one, psychologists label the dilemma an avoidance-avoidance conflict. A convicted shoplifter may have to choose between several days in jail or a hefty fine. A pregnant teenager may have to bear a child out of wedlock or submit to an abortion. Research shows that as organism approach an unattractive choice, it becomes more repellent and the tendency to avoid it intensifies. Hence the victim is likely to change direction and head for the attentive option. With closeness, that option becomes repulsive. Avoidance- avoidance conflicts arouse a great deal of anxiety typically and they are difficult to resolve. People are likely to waver between the unpleasant alternatives and attempt to escape from the conflict altogether. The shoplifter for example, might skip town or withdraw into fantasies. When a person is simultaneously attracted to and repelled by one goal. An idea, need object or action, we have a single approach-avoidance conflict. A single option in other world has a better sweat quality for example, an otherwise appealing carrier may require a lot of education. A luxurious car is costly. A luscious dessert is fattening. Intimacy with another entail vulnerability single approach- avoidance conflicts and to be difficult to resolve and to generate much anxiety. As in avoidance-avoidance conflict, people have the option to waver, sometimes indefinitely.

Each with good and bad point. A young woman may have to choose between working and attending college. The only available job is dull but will provide income. College will qualify the woman for a meaningful career, but education is time-consuming and are anxiety- provoking and hard to resolve. There are known four basic conflicts and gives a new example of each real conflicts may not fit neatly into these categories because people often face more than two choice.

Moreover, when examined closely, all options of conflicts are negative. At the very least, the selection of any appealing option limits other choices. The adoption of any negative option has an attraction. Removing the conflict and the anxiety it generated, in short life, conflicts are likely to be of the approach-avoidance type, which will positively or negatively makes the individual to form habit in the like manner.

Personality

The term personality is a key word in psychology. It implies certain physical and mental traits which are characteristic of a given individual. These traits determine to some extent, the individuals behaviours or adjustments to his surroundings. The terms personality and human behaviour, are inter-related. Psychology, in its broader concept, implies study of human personality. It is important to bear in mind that the personality of the doctor affects very much the well-being of the patient.

Conflicts

According to Park (2005) conflict is like a tug of war between two or more course of action or between opposing ideas. The person is required to act one way or the other, often generating painful emotions as for example in choosing a life partner or a job, this has to weigh the pros and cons of the situation to be able to make a correct decision. It is essential for a person’s mental health that conflicts should be resolved as possible within a reasonable period of the time before emotional disturbance occur.

He stated that when an individual is faced with problems, difficulties or failure, he employs certain way or devices to achieve health happiness or success. These are called defense mechanisms. Psychologists have identified a number of such defense mechanisms, which include the following:

Rationization

Instead of accepting failure and correcting himself, the individual tries to make excuses and justifies his behaviours. It is like the proverbial fax declaring that the grapes were sour. When it could not reach them, this is called rationalization. It is face saving devices.

Projection

Sometimes the individuals blame other for his mistakes or failures. It is like the students saying that he could not score good mark in the examination because; his teacher did not like him.

Compensation

Many people make use of compensation to enhance their self-esteem and prestige. The familiar example is that the student who is not good in his studies may distinguish himself in sport or dramatics.

Escape mechanism

Some individual adopt what is known as an escape mechanism to overcome failure or defeat. Some students pretend illness and do not appear for examinations. This is an escape phenomenon, then there are others who take to alcohol or drugs trying to solve their problem. This is also an escape phenomenon.

Displacement

An offices clerk badly snubbed by his superior takes it out on his wife and children on reaching home. This is like a rebound phenomenon. It is trying to escape from one situation and fixing blame on another situation.

Regression

Some people resort to childhood practices (example weeping when something goes wrong as a mode of adjustment). The above list of “defense mechanisms” serves, to illustrate the various modes of adjustment, the individual adopt to hide his faults or run way from his troubles and problems. A mentally healthy person will not use defense mechanism.

According to Davidoff (1980), Conflict arise in situations where two or more in compatible goals (needs action, events, or whatever) compete and cause an organism to feel pulled simultaneously in a conflict precludes choosing another (at least temporarily). Conflicts are considered frustrating and anxiety or using if short-lived. Conflicts

Components of personality

Davidoff (1980) classify human personality component into four (4):

Physical: These are the physical traits or failures of an individual namely height, weight, colour, facial expression, physical health etc. To the layman, a good personality means an impressive, Symmetrical and health body.
Emotional: Person emotions also go into the makeup of his personality. Emotions are the feelings; we have tear, anger, love, jealousy, guilt, and worries. These feelings affect an individual’s personality.
Intelligences: Personality also implies intellectual ability. An intelligent person will have a forceful personality. A person with sub-normal intelligence is described as a dull person.
Behaviour: Behaviour is a reflection of one’s personality. It is partly dependent upon our feelings and partly on the expectations of the society. Behaviour is described in such term as gentle, kind, affectionate, balanced submissive and aggressive. When we assess human personality, all these components must be taken into consideration.

Traits of personality

A trait is described as tendency to behave in a consistent manner in variable situations. Human personality traits are established by the age of 6 years. Some traits, we cultivate (example good manners) so we may conceal (example kindliness)? And some, we modify depending upon the society in which we are placed (example sense of humour).

The following are some of the personality traits

Cheerfulness Loyalty

Good manners Reliability

Sportsmanship Sense of humour

Honesty Tactfulness

Kindness Willing to help others

The personality traits we look for in a doctor are kindness, honesty, patience, tolerance, perseverance, consciousness throughout and initiative. It is possible to cultivate these traits.

The Suisse psychiatrist Jung (1875-1961) divided personalities into 2 types-extrovert and introvert. The extrovert is a person who is thought to be admixes with people. An introvert is a person who is reserved. Shy and generally keeps to himself most people exhibit characteristics of both.

Development of personality

Human life consists of definite stage of growth and each stage is marked by distinctive psychology.

Infancy: The first one year of life is called infancy. The infant is hardly a social creative. There is rapid physical and mental growth. The infant is totally dependent on the mother. By the end of first year. The infant is able to stand up for a short while and tries to walk with a little support. They enjoy simple tricks and games.
Pre-school child: This stage is marked by considerable growth of brain. The child feeds himself. Speaks, love his home, fears dark, loves stories and wants to assume responsibility .he begins to mix with other small children.
School age: The school-age period ranges from 5 to 15 years. The school joining child is active all the time. By the age of 8 the mental powers are fully developed. The brain of the child at the age of 8 years is almost of the same size as an adult, the child begins to reason there is a gradual detachment from the family and great attachments to his playmates and friends. He begins to form groups; the period of childhood terminates with the onset of puberty which is about 11 years in the case of Girls and 13 in the case of Boys.
Adolescent: Adolescent or Teenage is a turbulent period in one’s This is a period of rosy dreams, adventure love and romance, the teenager strived for independence the dislikes parental authority, he becomes fully aware of social values and norms there are rapid physical growth.
Adults: The person is mature and more balanced, the physical and mental characteristics are fully developed, it Is difficult to draw a line when adolescence ceases and adulthood begins.
Old age: It is difficult to say when old age begins, it is a gradual process marked by decline in physical power and activity of sense organs. Old ages marked by certain psychological changes such as impaired memory, rigidity of outlook. Irritability, bitterness, inner withdrawal and social maladjustment.

Character and will

The concept of personality also involves symptoms about character and will of the person, will indicate determination and character implies moral worth. Personality and character are not identical, both are different, men’s character may be good at one time and bad at another time through his personality remains the same, there is no acceptable definition of character.

Thinking

Man is called a thinking animal, thinking includes perception, memory, imagination and reasoning. It is an active mental process, imaginative thinking is a mental process, and it involves thinking in the absences of original sensory stimuli. Day dreaming and thinking about failure plans are examples of imaginative thinking e.g. The high form of thinking is said to be creative thinking e.g. An artist painting a picture, creative thinking is said to be responsible for new inventions, new views of life and new discoveries. The anatomical basic of thinking is cerebral cortex. In fact the purpose of education is to teach the people to think and not merely to memorize facts and fatigue.

Problem solving

An aspect of thinking is problem solving, it is regarded as the highest stage in human learning some problem in life are relatively simple there are other which are more difficult and complex calling for thinking and reasoning. Reasoning requires intelligence; there are several steps in the reasoning process. Collection of information on the subject, the arrangement of data carefully, observation of the implications, drawing conclusion and testing the conclusion. An intelligent person reasons well. Reasoning is not always foolproof fallacies may also occur.

Intelligence

Intelligence is an important aspect of personality, it has not been satisfactorily defined as yet, and this widely accepted definition is that it is the ability to see meaningful relationships between things. It includes perceiving, knowing, reasoning and remembering. Psychologist believe hereditary and environmental factors some psychologist emphasize genetic factor as having major significance while other emphasize environmental factors. There is considerable relationship between a person’s degree of intelligence and range of activities, the level of achievement and the depth of understanding possible to him. As psychologist observed the difference between animals and human beings and the difference organisms of the same species, they were impressed by the fact that there are variation in the cases and adequacy with which adjustment to new situation occurs, it was out of such observations that the concept of intelligence arose.

Mental age

The first text of intelligence were devised by Binet and Simon (1896) they developed the concept of mental age that is, a child who could on the 5 year level credited with mental age of intelligence achieved, but he gave no indication of the brightness or dullness of the individual concerned. Terman revised these texts, defining intelligence as the capacity to use abstract ideas for solving problems. Gessel indicated four sectors of intelligence development for consideration.