Introduction
Monodora myristica (calabash nutmeg) is a tropical tree of the family Annonaceace or custard apple family of flowering plant. Informer times, its seeds were widely sold as an expensive nutmeg substitute. Nowadays however, this is less common outside its region of production. Other name of calabash nutmeg include Jamaila nutmeg, Africa nutmeg, Ehurue, Ariwa, Awerewa, Chiri, Airama, African orchid nutmeg muscadier de calabash lubushi (Craig, 2007).
Monodora myristica commonly called African nutmeg a perennial edible plant that grows wild in evergreen West Africa forest (Buruiba et al., 2009). Its seeds usually embedded in a white sweet smelling pulp, was reported to possess valuable economic and medicinal value. In Nigeria and other African countries, the kernel obtained from the seeds is a popular spicing agent as well as an aromatic stimulating addition to medicine and sniff. Also the seeds where grind into powder and when taken as stimulant, relieves constipation (Buruba et al., 2009).
The fruit past preliminary phytochemical test of crude extracts of monodora myristica revealed the presence of tannins, flavonoids and alkanoids, among other constituents contained with other pytochemicals such as tannins, alkaloids have been demonstrated to posses anthelmintic activities chemically, tannins are polyphenolic compound (Betram, 1998). Feasible effect of tannins is that they can bind to free proteins in the gastrointestinal tract of the host animal as glycoprotein in the cuticle of the animal and may lead to death.
About the Specie (Monodora myristica)
Monodora myristica in our local communities is commonly referred to as “Erhe” is a spice that has been traditionally used as a vermifuge in Ajurveda. The seed extract of monodora myristica produced a significant anthelmintic activity.
Species like monodora myristica are group of exoteric food adjunct that have been in used for thousands of years to enhance the quantity of the food. It is used in the making of wines, beverages foods, cosmetics, tooth paste and in medicine as adjuvant it has microbial and soothing properties (Srenirasan, 2005). Also the seed when grind into powder and when taken acts as stimulant relieving constipation and can as well be sprinkled on sore especially those that are cause by guinea worm (Bruiba et al., 2009).
Monodora myristica is pollinated by beetles in the wild and it produces large fruits filled with pulps and aromatic brown seeds. The seed are used in Africa as a substitute for nutmeg, hence the name calabash nutmeg. Monodora myristica was introduced in 18th century and it is known as Jamaica nutmeg.
Cultivation and history of monodora myristica
Monodora myristica is cultivated by seeds, suckers or layers. The calabash nutmeg grows naturally in evergreen forests from Liberia, to Nigeria and Cameroon, Angola and also Uganda and west Kenya. Due to the slave trade in the 18th century, the tree was introduced to the Caribbean islands where it was established and become known as Jamican nutmeg in 1897, Monodora Myristica was introduced to Bogor Botanical Garden Indonesia, where the tree flower on a regular basis but no fruits could yet be collected due to its large and orchid-like flowers, the tree is also grow as an ornamental (Weiss, 2002).
Tree and leaves of monodora myristica
The monodora myristica tree can reach a height of 35m and 2m in diameter at breast height (DBH). It has a clear truck and branches horizontally the leaves are alternately arranged and drooping with the leaf blade ellipilical or broadest towards the apex and tapering to the stalk. They are petiolate and can reach a size of up to 45 x 20 cm.
Flower of monodora myristica
The flower appears at the base of new shoots and is singular, pendent, large and fragrant. The pedicel bears a leaf like bract and can reach 20 cm in length the flower’s sepal and red shaped crisped and 2.5 cm long the corolla is formed of six sepals of which the three outer reach a length of 10 cm and show curled margins and reds green and yellow spots the three petals are almost triangular and form a white-yellowish cone which on the outside is red spotted and their pollen (protogynous), the flower is pollinated by insect.
Fruits and seeds of monodora myristica
The fruit is a berry of 20 cm diameter and is smooth green and spherical and becomes woody it is attached to a long stalk which is up to 60 cm long inside the fruit the numerous oblong gold, pale brown 1.5 cm long seeds are surrounded by a whitish fragment pulp the seeds contain 5-9% of a colourless essential oil.
Timber and bark of monodora myristica
Monodora myristica timbers is hard and is used for carpentry, house fitting and joinery in medicine the bark is used in treatments of stomach-aches, febrile, pains, eye diseases and haemorrhoids.
Uses of monodora myristica
The odour and taste of the monodora myristica seed is similar to nutmeg and it is used as a popular spice in the West Africa cuisine. The fruits are collected from wild trees and the seeds are dried and sold whole or grind to powder form and used in stew making, soups, cakes and desserts. For medical purpose they are used as stimulant, stomach pains, for headache, sores and also as insect repellents.
The seed are also made into necklace. The timber is hard and is used for carpentry, house fitting and joinery in medicine the bark is used in treatments of stomach-aches, eye disease and haemorrhoids (Craig, 2007).
Pharmacology of monodora myristica
The odour and taste of the monodora myristica seed is similar to nutmeg and it is used as a popular spice in the West Africa cuisine. The fruits are collected form wild trees and seeds are dried and sold whole or grind to powder from and use for making stew, soup, cake and desserts, they are used as stimulants, for medicinal purpose for headache, sore and also insect repellents. The bark of the tree is used in treating stomach ache, febrile pains, eye disease and haemorrhoids (Craig, 2007).
Chemical composition of monodora myristica
The essential oil that can be obtained from the leaves contains B –caryophylene, α humulene and α pinene the major compounds found in the essential oil from the seed and x-phellandrene, x-pinene, myrcene, limonene and pinene. Monodora myristica contains a total of 61 chemical constituents with the major ones are alpha phellendrene expoxide (3.2%), carvacol (2.09%) and delta cardinene (2.21%) the n-hexane extract contained 39 chemical constituents with the major constituents as hexadecanoic acid (3.96%),12.ctadenomic acid (3.77%), propypleate (3.4%) thiosulfuric acid (2.98%) and 2-hydroxyl clopentinine dexcanoic (2.2%) the chloroform extract contained 38 components with p-cymene(6.0%)alpha phelendrenepoxide (3.23%), enthyilinoleats (3.79%) linoleic acid (4.36%) oleic acid (14.66%) ,9,12-octadecadienoic acid (7.89%) touene extract contain 30 chemical constituents with the major ones as p-cymene (4.0%) alpha phellandrene apoxide (2.41%) henolic acid (23.31%)and 9-12 octadecanlienoic acid (7.02%).
Clinical significance of monodora myristica
Though plant based natural medicine are popularly acclaimed to be safe, scientists advocate for proper toxicological studies in order to ensure safety in the use of natural medicine. Toxicity is the undesirable property of any drug or chemical capable of producing injurious or detrimental effects in a living organism when it occurs depend on the amount of chemical absorbed (Betram, 1998).
A study of the oil content of monodora myristica for its potential and industrial application has been undertaken in study (Buruiba, et al 2009) has also reported the advantageous effect of monodora myristica on the kidney of rats. Given the traditional use of the plant in the management of various ailments it becomes necessary to evaluate its toxicology potential in order to caution or encourage its use in traditional medicine. Estimation of measuring hepatocellular injury total protein measurement can reflect nutritional status and may be used to screen or help to diagnose kidney disease, liver disease and many other condition. Low total levels may be seen with chronic inflammation or reduction in liver function (Anaigu et al., 2002).
The kidney
The kidney is a vital part of humans’ metabolism. Besides its role as carrier of waste nitrogen, urea also plays role in the counter current exchange system of the nephrons that allow for reabsorption of water (H2O) and critical ion from the excreted urine. Urea is reabsorbed in the inner medullar collecting ion from the nephrons thus raising the osmolarly intersitium surrounding. The thin ascending limb of loop of Henles which in turn causes water (H2O) to be reabsorbed by action of urea which eventually flows back into the thin ascending limb of the tubule through the connection content ducts into excreted urine. The equivalent nitrogen content in gram/mol of urea can be estimated by the conversion factor 0.028/mol (Jackie and Thomas, 2007).
Creatinine
Creatinine is a catabolic phosphate, which is used by the skeletal muscles. Daily production depends on the muscular mass. It is excreted out of the body entirely by the kidneys.
Brief history of creatinine
The history of creatinine date back to 1847 when Liebig named a substance he obtained by heating creatin with mineral acids in 1885. Herbaczewski first synthesized creatinine. Its synthesis was confirmed by Paulman who in 1894 also furnished proof that creatinine was methylguanidoacetic and that creatinine was its internal anhydride.
Clinical significance of creatinine
- Diagnosing and monitoring of acute and chronic renal disease.
- Adjusting dosage of renal excreted medication.
- Monitoring renal transport recipient.
Urea
Urea or carbamide is a compound with the chemical formula CO(NH2)2. The molecule has two –NH2 group by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group. Urea serves an important role in metabolism of nitrogen containing substances in the urine of mammals. It is odourless, solid, colourless and it is highly soluble in water and practically non-toxic dissolved in water (H2O). it is neither acidic nor alkaline. The body uses it in many process, the most notable one being nitrogen excretion (Mabberley, 2008).
Urea is the end product of protein metabolism. It is synthesized in the liver from ammonia produced by catabolism of amino acid. It is transported by the kidneys from where it is excreted. Increased level of urea is found in renal disease, urinary obstruction, shock, congestive heart disease, and failure and burns. Decrease levels are found in liver failure and pregnancy. The formation of urea is by the ornithinine argininne cycle. The enzyme arginase is found in large quantities in the liver.
Brief history of urea
The discovery by Fredrick Wohler in 1828, that Urea can be produced from inorganic starting of materials was important conceptual, milestone in chemistry as it showed for the first time that a substance previously known by a product of nitrogenous waste. Ammonia is toxic to cells and so must be excreted from the body. The liver converts the ammonia to a non-toxic compound which can be safely transported in the blood to the kidney where it is eliminated in urine.
Clinical significance of urea
Diagnosing and monitoring of acute renal disease.
Effect of monodora myristica on the kidney
Monodora myristica exhibited high antioxidant activities invitro, signifying the protective potential of the spice against free radical photochemical in particular may be responsible for these effective antioxidant properties.
Distortion of the balance between the production of reactive oxygen species and the body antioxidant defense against them produces oxidative stress which intensifies tissue disease (Pagana and Pagana, 2010). Given the traditional use of the plant in the management of various ailments; in estimation of measuring heptiocellular injury, total level may be seen with chronic inflammation and kidney dysfunction.
Cycas revoluta
The common name for cycas revoluta is a sago plant. It is found in thickest on hill sides on the southern Japanese islands or Ryulvyn and in sparse forest on Chinese mainland in East Fujian Chianjang Xian, Ningde Xian, and some island.
A Low growing cycas, however older specimen will develop a trunk about 200 mm (9 inches) across and up to 6 meters (6 feet) high. For a very (several centuries) old plant, usually single trunk, although it is not uncommon for a plant to “pups off” shoots which can be removed and potted up. It feather like leaves up to 900 mm (36 inches) long with leaflets being a very glossy green stiff and pointed and about 10 mm (4 inches) long.
The hydroalcohol extract of leaves of cycas revoluta shows the presence of alkaloids, steroids and tannins while the choloroform extract show the presences of saponins, tannins and sugars. Cycas sago is extremely poisonous to animal (including humans) if ingested. Pets are particularly at risk since they are seen to find the plant very palatable clinical symptoms of ingestion will develop in 12 hours and may include vomiting, diarrhoea, weakness, seizure and liver failure or hepatotoxicity characteristics. The pet may appear bruised; have nose bleeding (epistatis), melena (blood in stool), hemaochezia (blood staining) and heamarthrosis (Blood in joint). Effect of ingestion can include permanent intestinal damage and death (Orstion, 1988).
All parts of the plants are toxic. However the seed contained highest level of the toxic cycasin. Cycasin causes gastrointestinal irritation and in high enough doses leads to liver failure and kidney dysfunction. Other toxins include beta methylamino L-alanoic, a neurotoxin amino acid and an unidentified toxin which has been observed to cause hind limb paralysis in cattle (Hooker, 2011).
References
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Betram G. K. (1998): Introduction to toxicology occupational and in Basic and Clinical Significance, dicotyledons. J. LNn Soc.Bot 58:95-103
Craig, M. (2007): Celtnet Recipes . “Calabash nutmeg information page”
http : www celtnet. Org . uk/ recipes – entry . php? Term = calabash % 20 nutmeg http. // www. Celtnet. org . Nutmeg. Retrieved on 4th May 2014
Hooker, W. J (2011): Monodora Myristica . Curtis’s Botanical Magazine 58: 3059
Mabberley, D. J. (2008): Mabberley’s plant book a portable dictionary of plants their classification and uses. (3rd ed.) United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press pp. 107-110
Pagana K.O. & Pagana, T. J (2010). Mosby manual of diagnostics and laboratory test (4th Ed.). New York: Mosby Eslver.
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